All Submission Categories

Energy Path Theory

Authors: Ahmet Dinç
Comments: 6 Pages. (Note by ai.viXra.org Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

Energy Path Theory proposes that mass is not a fundamental property but emerges from the centripetal force produced when a photon is confined into a helical energy path. A photon folding onto itself forms two opposite-phase helices corresponding to the electron and positron. The required centripetal force—generated by the vacuum electric field—stabilizes the helical motion and defines the particle’s effective mass. This geometric mechanism naturally explains spin-½, the electron’s nonzero minimum motion, Lorentz behavior, and the mass hierarchy of leptons.
Category: Quantum Physics

Analytic Derivation and Computational Visualization of Five Novel Series

Authors: Marciano L. Legarde
Comments: 17 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite listed scientific references and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The rigorous analysis of infinite series remains a fundamental driver of discovery in both real and complex analysis, often revealing unique functional representations and essential constants. This paper investigates five novel series, providing a comprehensive analysis of their convergence properties, closed-form expressions, and functional relationships. Utilizing Python-based numerical simulations, we visualize the asymptotic behavior of partial sums through 3D mapping and phase plots. Analytical results demonstrate that these series exhibit significant connections to the Riemann and Hurwitz Zeta functions. These findings suggest non-trivial relationships within the properties of special functions, offering potential insights into open theoretical problems such as the Riemann Hypothesis.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Elements of Cosmology, Astronomy and Astrophysics — Perspectives from Kinetic Theory and Thermodynamics

Authors: Stephen J. Crothers
Comments: 7 Pages.

In any proposed thermodynamic mathematical relation two fundamental conditions must be satisfied: (a) the units on each side must be the same and (b) the thermodynamic character on each side must also be the same. If either of these conditions is not satisfied then the proposed equation or inequality is invalid. Temperature is always an intensive thermodynamic coordinate; mass is always an extensive thermodynamic coordinate. The thermodynamic mathematical relations of the kinetic theory of an ideal gas satisfy these two conditions. Despite invoking the laws of thermodynamics and the kinetic theory of gases, cosmology, astronomy and astrophysics violate the laws of thermodynamics by making temperature nonintensive and mass non-extensive, and also violate the kinetic theory of an ideal gas by applying gravitational and Coulomb forces between the particles of an ideal gas when, by definition, there are no forces between the particles of an ideal gas except when they collide elastically with one another and the walls of their container. Consequently, the gaseous theory of the stars is certainly false, and, inter alia, so too the theory of black hole thermodynamics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Intensive and Extensive Properties: Thermodynamic Balance

Authors: Pierre-Marie Robitaille, Stephen J. Crothers
Comments: 11 Pages.

In equilibrium thermodynamics systems can be described in terms of properties which are either 1) intensive, 2) extensive, or 3) neither intensive nor extensive. While they can vary with spatial location in non-equilibrium systems, intensive properties are homogenous functions of degree (or order) zero (k = 0) and can be measured at any point. Temperature must always be intensive, as required by the laws of thermodynamics. This fundamental aspect of temperature is preserved whether dealing with equilibrium or non-equilibrium systems, as the latter can be analysed with local thermal equilibrium or reduced time intervals. As for extensive properties, given equilibrium, they are homogeneous functions of degree one (k = 1) and consequently, are both additive and dependent on spatial extent. Conversely, properties which are neither intensive nor extensive represent homogeneous functions of specific degree (0 < k < 1) which, while non-additive, remain dependent on some aspect of spatial extent. Importantly, the determination of whether some properties (e.g. length, surface area) are extensive or neither intensive nor extensive, remains system dependent. Since thermodynamic properties are homogenous functions, all thermodynamic expressions must be balanced. This requirement extends beyond simple dimensionality. The intensive or extensive character of any given thermodynamic expression must be preserved on either side. In this regard, the existence of properties which are neither intensive nor extensive provides significant insight into the validity of thermodynamic expressions. The inclusion of such properties within expressions can only be allowed when their presence results in thermodynamic balance. Otherwise, the resulting expressions violate the laws of thermodynamics. This is often manifested in temperature relations which are nonintensive.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

On the Diophantine Equation X^2 + K = 2^n: Prime Constraints and Computational Evidence

Authors: Durga Shankar Akodia
Comments: 5 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

We study integer solutions to the exponential Diophantine equation x^2 + k = 2^n where k and n are primes. We prove that for any solution with n >= 2, x must be odd, and k must be an odd prime. Furthermore, we establish the strict congruence k = 7 (mod 8) for all solutions with n >= 3. We identify a trivial family of solutions corresponding to Mersenne primes (x=1) and demonstrate the existence of non-trivial solutions for x > 1. Computational evidence is presented for 9 out of 11 prime values of n <= 31, revealing 16 distinct non-trivial solutions. We propose the Akodia Conjecture concerning the infinitude of such non-trivial solutions
Category: Number Theory

The Mechanism of Gravity is the Flow of Spacetime

Authors: Kurt L. Becker, Kurt J. Becker
Comments: 20 Pages. Experiment being designed to distinguish whether gravity is a push or pull.

This paper posits that the mechanism of gravity is the flow of spacetime. It also posits that spacetime is actually created in the vast voids between galaxy clusters. Spacetime flows into galaxies and bends the straight inertial paths of stars into curves, resulting in circular, elliptical, or parabolic orbits. It shows mathematically how the flat rotation curve of outer galactic stars results.Six quantum properties of spacetime are described: Spacetime is digital and consists of incredibly small particles. Spacetime is constantly being created in the vast voids of the universe. Spacetime is constantly being absorbed inside stars, planets, black holes, and by gases. Spacetime flows. Spacetime is incompressible at low speeds. Neutrinos and gravitons are emitted by stars.Six observable properties are described: The universe is expanding. The flow of spacetime will actually displace or move galaxies, stars, and planets. The flow of spacetime will bend starlight. The flow of spacetime is in constant flux. The flow of spacetime is without limit in distance. The effect of the flow of spacetime on the early clumping of matter after recombination.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

On the Intrinsic Geometrical Nature of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Without Complex Numbers

Authors: Jaime Vladimir Torres-Heredia Julca
Comments: 18 Pages. 1 figure

In this paper we are going to study the polynomials whose arguments and coefficients are vectors in the Euclidean vector space together with the new operations defined in our previous paper viXra:2510.0152. In order to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra with topological tools, we are going to define the limits and derivatives with respect to vectors. We are going to represent some values of the polynomials thanks to paths in the plane. We will see that for the partial sums of the Taylor development linked to the exponential function, we get spiral paths leading to the unit circle. We are going to find the zeros/roots and we are going to present a new formulation of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, in the Euclidean vector space, with its meaning linked to paths in the plane. We are going to adapt a proof made by Laurent Schwartz with complex numbers. We are going to present also an adaptation of the algorithm of Kneser in order to find the roots. We will show that the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is definitely geometrical. We will give also a link to a code source for GNU Octave for experiments with operations and polynomials in this framework.
Category: General Mathematics

The Glycolysis-Lactate-Histone Lactylation Axis in Polystyrene Microplastic-Induced Cognitive Impairment: A Proposed Mechanistic Framework

Authors: Haodong Xiang
Comments: 13 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants repeatedly shown to impair cognitive function in mouse models. Existing litera ture converges on oxidative stress, blood-brain barrier disruption, and neuroin f lammation as central mechanisms, yet the precise molecular pathways linking these phenomena to hippocampal dysfunction remain incompletely understood. This review synthesizes current evidence to evaluate the hypothesis that PS-MP exposure triggers a metabolic shift toward aerobic glycolysis, enhancing lactate production. This lactate, in turn, may mediate neuroinflammation and impair synaptic plasticity through epigenetic reprogramming via histone lactylation (e.g., H3K18la). We construct a mechanistic model based on this hypothesis, inte grating findings on microglial activation, astrocyte-neuron metabolic coupling, and innate immune signaling. While the glycolysis-lactate-histone lactylation axis presents a biologically plausible mechanism for PS-MP neurotoxicity, we iden tify critical evidence gaps, primarily the lack of direct measurements of lactate, glycolytic flux, and histone lactylation in the brain following PS-MP exposure. Finally, we propose key regulatory proteins—including LDHA, MCTs, p300, and HIF-1α—as high-priority targets for future research to validate this emerging metabolic-epigenetic pathway.
Category: Biochemistry

Surface Brightness Profiles: Calculating Rotation Curves Without Dark Matter

Authors: P. G. Vejde
Comments: 4 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

Keplerian and Newtonian physics tell us that the rotational velocities of planets must decrease with any increase in radial distance from the sun. The same theoretical assumption is made for the rotational velocities of all visible mass including stars around spiral galaxy cores. As spiral galaxy brightness profiles diminish in luminosity from core to disc edge the assumptions to date are that because the observed rotation curves of galaxies are flat, this is not consistent with the distribution of visible mass in spiral galaxy discs. And that either new physics or dark matter halos must be invoked to explain why the observed flat rotation curves do not match the rapidly and exponentially diminishing brightness of the galaxy’s surface brightness profile as the radius increases. Here in this paper a new rotation curve calculation is made which shows that the surface brightness profiles of visible mass in galaxies can be made to favourably fit the observed flat galaxy rotation curves without having to invoke any new physics or dark matter.
Category: Astrophysics

"Binary Calendar" and Global Warming

Authors: Warren D. Smith
Comments: 9 Pages.

The "binary calendar" is "Years divisible by 4 but not by 128 are leap years." I point out this suggestion should be more accurate than the "Gregorian calendar." We also look at the idea of using precise measurements of sidereal day length (Earth's rotation period≈86164.1 SI seconds) as a tool to help assess "climate change." We find it could be helpful but is not trivial to assess.
Category: Geophysics

Quantisation in Stable Gravitational Systems More Objects

Authors: Richard Wayte
Comments: 6 Pages.

The original article on quantisation in gravitational systems has been extended to cover the latest data on Trans-Neptunian Objects, the hypothetical Planet-Nine, and the Oort cloud. Then planet-nine might orbit at a semimajor axis around 703AU, while the Kuiper belt is around 44AU and the Scattered Disk Objects are fitted broadly around 78AU and 175AU, and 700AU. The Hills cloud fits harmonics from 2,800AU up to 17,600AU; and the outer Oort cloud fits further harmonics up to180,000AU. Quantisation of orbits is a weak influence so objects may remain unstabilised yet commensurable with neighbouring objects.
Category: Astrophysics

Short Note: Trigonometric Interpolation for 2N Points

Authors: Andrej Liptaj
Comments: 3 Pages.

The construction of a trigonometric interpolant for an even number of interpolated points is not unique. To resolve this, we propose to minimize the amplitude of the highest-frequency term, which leads to the Gauss interpolation formula.
Category: Functions and Analysis

Towards a Solution to the Problem of Ultraviolet Divergences in Quantum Electrodynamics Part 2[:] A Modified Quantum Theory

Authors: G. K. Artimovich
Comments: 38 Pages. In Russian

The second part of the article is devoted to the transition from classical to quantized fields. The concept of the product of field operators is reconsidered. On this basis, a modified postulate of canonical quantization is formulated. An equation of motion for operators that differs from the generally accepted one is proposed. Using the example of the polarization operator, it is demonstrated that the modified theory can solve the problem of ultraviolet divergences.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Riemann Hypothesis Via Wang's Peer-Reviewed Paper

Authors: Dmitri Martila
Comments: 2 Pages.

I am writing a shortest proof of the Riemann Hypothesis using Wang's paper as a starting point.
Category: Number Theory

A CPT Model with Implications for Causality in the Setting of Maxwell’s Equations and for Uniting Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity

Authors: Lamont Williams
Comments: 30 Pages.

A model is presented that unifies the core principles of the Charge Conjugation, Parity, and Time-Reversal (CPT) theorem within a single conceptual framework. Additionally, the model integrates the time-symmetric structure of CPT invariance with the asymmetric thermodynamic arrow of time. It emphasizes that the time component of CPT encodes formal symmetry operations and not causal mechanisms at macroscopic scales. Concepts from the model are extended to the retarded (forward-in-time) and advanced (backward-in-time) wave solutions of Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetism. They show that the temporal symmetry between these waves reflects the time-symmetric structure of CPT invariance. And as such, it is likely that the wave solutions do not directly encode macroscopic causal activity. This aligns with Maxwell’s equations, which are not inherently causal, but which are typically interpreted in causal terms in established practice. This also has direct implications regarding the ontological status of advanced waves. The CPT model is further extended to the settings of quantum mechanics and general relativity, where it appears to offer a small advance toward their integration.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Euler Product of the Dirichlet Eta Function as a Proof of Riemann Hypothesis

Authors: Ryan Hackbarth
Comments: 5 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: An abstract is required in the article)

In this paper, I utilize Euler's derivation of the Product Formula the Zeta function to produce a similar Product Formula for the Dirichlet Eta Function. I then examine how this formula relates to the critical line and the zeros of the Riemann Zeta Function.
Category: Number Theory

Calculation of the Hyperfine Splitting in the Ground-State of Atomic Hydrogen

Authors: Hans Peter Good
Comments: 6 Pages.

In terms of the 1S-2S transition, defined as the 15-digit frequency 2466061413.18701 MHz, the hyperfine splitting in the ground-state of the neutral atom hydrogen (H) is predicted to be 1420.40575176878 MHz, which should undergo experimental testing with sub-mHz accuracy for consistency. The conclusion is founded on the premise that the proton magnetic moment in Bohr magneton in hydrogen is the product of two simple algebraic expressions that include integers or fractions of integers, linking them through a basic building block to the subatomic structure of the vacuum space. The use of an alternative fine structure constant in the modeling necessitates a mass correction factor to the mass of the electron recommended by CODATA, which is established through both experimental data and a theoretical derivation.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Dynamic Vacuum Theory: A Unified Conformal Galileon Model

Authors: Andrey Bulgakov
Comments: 7 Pages. 3 figures (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a modification of General Relativity within the framework of Horndeski scalar-tensor theories. We postulate the existence of a scalar field that is universally coupled to the matter metric via a conformal factor. This approach ensures the strict equality of the propagation speeds of gravitational and electromagnetic waves (cg = c_gamma), satisfying the stringent constraints from the GW170817 event. To reconcile the theory with Solar System tests, a Cubic Galileon term is introduced in the Lagrangian, implementing the Vainshtein screening mechanism. We show that by selecting the energy scale of the theory as Lambda ~ 10^-13 eV, the scalar field is screened within planetary systems but generates an effective "fifth force" on galactic scales, mimicking a Dark Matter halo and leading to flat rotation curves. On cosmological scales, the field dynamics reproduce the accelerated expansion of the Universe (attractor w approx -1), offering a unified solution to the Dark Matter and Dark Energy problems.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Enigma of the Numbers 17 and 19 and Magic Matrices

Authors: Ahcene Ait Saadi
Comments: 7 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Further repetition may not be accepted; for the last time, please cite and list scientific references!)

This document deals with enigmas related to the numbers 17 and 19, by presenting equations involving squares of natural integers. It is composed of two parts. 1-Enigmas of the numbers 17 and 19[;] 2-Enigma of the number 17
Category: Number Theory

Interference Fringes Caused by Beams Narrower Than the Fringe Spacing

Authors: Kazufumi Sakai
Comments: 6 Pages.

The interference of light has not only contributed to our understanding of natural laws, but it has also been used as a crucial foundational technology supporting modern industry. Both fundamental and applied aspects are being actively researched on interference. We've made an optical element that consists of a half-mirror and a mirror with an adjustable relative angle, and we're studying the fundamental characteristics of interference fringes. The fringe spacing can be altered by adjusting their relative angle. When light is incident on this device, numerous bright and dark lines appear, similar to thin-film interference or interference fringes of equal thickness. This report describes how the interference pattern and light intensity change as the width of the incident light beam is narrowed below the fringe spacing.
Category: Classical Physics

On Properties of a Smooth Income Tax Function with Application to the UK

Authors: Samuel Forbes
Comments: 12 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper examines smooth, progressive income tax functions as an alternative to the current piecewise UK tax function. The piecewise function applies constant rates within income brackets leading to a discontinuous first derivative or marginal tax rate which can create incentives for individuals to limit their earnings. Building on Odland’s work on the Norwegian income tax function, we derive and analyse a general class of smooth tax functions that maintain progressivity while ensuring continuity in marginal rates. We find that the function Odland proposed as a replacement for the Norwegian piecewise tax function also provides a good fit for the UK piecewise tax function. Despite theoretical advantages of a smooth tax function, the implementation of such a system in the UK and elsewhere is likely to be constrained for several reasons including administrative complexity and political considerations.
Category: Economics and Finance

Comprehensive Review of Artificial General Intelligence AGI and Agentic GenAI: Applications in Business and Finance

Authors: Satyadhar Joshi
Comments: 15 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a comprehensive review of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) and Agentic AI, examining their definitions, evolution, technological foundations, current capabilities, and future trajectories. We analyze AGI’s theoretical underpinnings, contrasting it with narrow AI and artificial superintelligence (ASI), and highlight three critical dimensions of AGI development: (1) technical architectures bridging narrow AI to general intelligence, (2) transformative applications across sectors such as finance, business, and research, and (3) emerging ethical and workforce challenges. Agentic AI is also explored in depth, with a focus on its architectural requirements, computational demands, and learning mechanisms.We review specialized frameworks like OpenAI’s AGI classification and Agentic AI platforms such as Vectara-agentic and CrewAI, along with enabling infrastructure including NVIDIA’s AI hardware and large-scale cloud systems like OpenAI’s proposed "Stargate." Our comparative analysis reveals that Agentic AI is already being deployed in areas such as legal services, DevOps, and enterprise automation, whereas AGI remains in the research stage with ongoing debates about feasibility and timelines.Market data shows accelerating AGI growth (36.9% CAGR through 2031) and strong adoption in financial services (38% of AI investments projected by 2028). Despite this momentum, significant gaps persist in areas such as evaluation metrics, environmental impact, and governance. We propose a framework for responsible AGI development that balances innovation with ethical standards, emphasizing standardized benchmarks and workforce transition strategies.This is a pure review paper; all findings are derived from cited literature. It contributes to ongoing discourse by synthesizing fragmented research into actionable insights for practitioners and policymakers navigating the AGI and Agentic AI landscape.
Category: Economics and Finance

Speculation on DNA Origami Windmill Model Based on Franklin Figure 51

Authors: Zuodong Sun
Comments: 7 Pages.

Franklin's Photo 51, revealing the periodic diffraction characteristics of DNA, provided key structural evidence for the traditional double helix model. However, the "periodic intensity variation", "symmetrical distribution law" contained in it, and the contradiction between the static map and dynamic physiological functions have not been fully interpreted. Based on this map, this paper proposes an original conjecture of the DNA "origami windmill" model, derived only from the diffraction characteristics of Franklin's Photo 51 and existing literature without supporting experimental data: DNA tetramer forms an inverted conical channel (i.e., inverted trapezoid) surrounded by four fan-shaped leaves, with the outer size larger than the inner size and a central through-hole, which is completely homologous to the inverted conical structural characteristics of potassium channels; the axis core of the DNA windmill is presumably anchored on the fibrous protein scaffold of the nuclear matrix (non-suspended state), consistent with the anchoring logic of the potassium channel windmill protein; cations (potassium ions, sodium ions, calcium ions, etc.) may drive the fan leaves to rotate through thrust when passing through the central hole along the concentration gradient, realizing dynamic movement without the participation of enzymes, which is consistent with the dynamic mechanism of potassium channels; two sets of connected double strands exhibit radial symmetry (extending along the radius direction of the axis core) and are mutually mirror-symmetrical (forming a mirror structure after folding around the axis core), and the dual symmetry characteristics are accurately matched with the cross and signal symmetry laws of the map; during replication, the two sets of connected double strands may separate naturally, and each uses the complete strand as a template to complementarily synthesize new strands, which not only conforms to the core mechanism of semi-conservative replication but also simplifies the process and ensures the integrity of genetic information. This conjecture aims to throw out a brick to attract jade through the dynamic interpretation of the static map, break through the limitations of the traditional double helix model, and provide a new research perspective for explaining DNA dynamic behavior and intranuclear material transport mechanism.
Category: Biochemistry

Quantum Mechanics as Real Geometry: Curvature, Torsion, and Holonomy

Authors: Se Kyun Kwon
Comments: 15 Pages. (DOI): https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17699147 (Note by viXra Admin: For the last time, please cite listed scientific reference and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

While the complex formalism of quantum mechanics has been extraordinarily successful, the fundamental geometric origin of its core elements—the imaginary unit, operator non-commutativity, quantum phase, and the intrinsic geometry with quantum spin—has remained unresolved for more than a century.Here we resolve these foundational questions by deriving an exact and physically equivalent formulation of the Schroedinger equation as a Real Geometric Flow—a moving-frame evolution on a 2��-dimensional real state space.In this restored framework, the global imaginary unit �� fully decomposes into a set of local skew-symmetric generators that drive planar rotations in real space, revealing that the traditional complex formalism is a compressed representation of an intrinsicrotational geometry.Within the real geometric flow, energy eigenvalues appear as the Curvatures of the state trajectory, energy gaps correspond to Torsions that couple internal planes—naturally generating the geometry of quantum spin—and quantum phase emergesnaturally as the Holonomy of the real moving frame.This formulation preserves the full empirical content of quantum mechanics while exposing the geometric mechanisms hidden beneath its notation, providing the first coherent explanation of curvature, torsion, non-commutativity, spin behavior, andquantum phase within a single framework.By demonstrating that the algebraic postulates of quantum mechanics arise from a deeper geometric order—one that stands alongside curvature-based theories such as General Relativity—this work establishes a unified differential-geometric foundation forquantum dynamics.It opens new directions for quantum control, quantum information, and fundamental physics.
Category: Quantum Physics

Asymptotic Stability of the Zeta Function via Differential Perturbations of Step Functions

Authors: Cesar A. P. Correa
Comments: 4 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a heuristic approach to the validity of the Riemann Hypothesis, utilizing techniques from Harmonic Analysis and Partial Differential Equations. By decomposing the Dirichlet series using integer-part functions, an oscillatory discrepancy term generated by the discrete nature of the summands is isolated. Modeling this term via Fourier series and subjecting it to the Laplacian operator in the complex plane, it is demonstrated that the condition for the annihilation of the function $zeta(s)$ requires an equilibrium of magnitudes in the second-order partial derivatives. Analytical results indicate that such equilibrium is unstable for $text{Re}(s) eq 1/2$, providing strong theoretical evidence in favor of Riemann's original conjecture.
Category: Number Theory

Why Zero Angular Momentum in the First Bohr Orbit?

Authors: Eric Louis Beaubien
Comments: 1 Page. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite listed scientific references)

In classical mechanics, the first Bohr orbit has angular momentum 1(ℏ) but ‘0’ angular momentum in quantum mechanics. The geometric/logical reason for this is that a single DeBroglie wavelength (amplitude) when squared has only two possible places for an electron to be. The number of places must be more than two to determine angular momentum.
Category: Quantum Physics

Derivation of G Using Quantum Gravity

Authors: Nigel B. Cook
Comments: 2 Pages.

In quantum gravity as derived in the simple 1-page poster paper vixra.org/abs/1305.0012 (a brief summary of a new quantum gravity theory based entirely on observed hard facts without any speculations such as extra ad hoc dimensions as occur in string theory), G arises from the Casimir shielding of an otherwise isotropic exposure to dark energy. A new derivation, including a more refined analysis of the geometry of quantum gravity than the earlier papers, is provided to yield a checkable prediction (apparently within one percent of observed G), an improvement on the prediction given the earlier paper. The exact accuracy will however depend on value assumed for local density.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Deep Learning-Based Skin Disease Detection Using EfficientNetB4

Authors: Akshat Singh Panwar
Comments: 6 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

One of the most prevalent health problems affecting people globally is skin disease, and early detection is essential to successful treatment and improved patient outcomes. Accurately diagnosing these conditions can be difficult, though, particularly since many skin diseases have similar visual characteristics andnecessitate a high degree of clinical expertise. Deep learning has demonstrated promise in recent years in resolving these issues by automating the classification of medical images. In this work, we investigate the classification of six types of skin diseases: Benign, Malignant, Akne, Pigment, Ekzama, and Enfeksiyonel.By fine-tuning a model pre-trained on the ImageNet dataset, we achieve a classification accuracy of 93.2%, along with consistently high F1-scores and ROC AUC values between 0.99 and 1.00 across all categories. These results suggest that deep learning can play a valuable role in supporting dermatologists with fast and reliable diagnostic tools. This paper also examines the specific challenges involved in classifying certain diseases and discusses possible improvements for future work. Index Terms—Skin disease classification, deep learning, EfficientNetB4, CNN, medical image analysis, image augmentation,multiclass classification.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

A Note on the Occurence of Fibonacci Terms in the Differences Between n and Pn of Pancake Graphs

Authors: Ryan O'Rourke
Comments: 12 Pages.

In this paper I discuss a pattern observable in the n and P_n values of the first nineteen pancake graphs. This pattern could potentially hint at the as yet unknown diameters of the next graphs, and is at least viable for first seventy-four values of n, since it predicts values, in the aforementioned range, of P_n which fall between published lower and upper bounds. The pattern arises in sets of adjacent n's with equal differences between n and P_n, and is equivalent to a subsequence of the Fibonacci sequence. If one takes the known values of P_n and deletes n from each, one gets a difference value, which we call d, which allows one to arrange the numbers into corresponding blocks, so that the first block has 2 columns, the second 3, then 5 and then 8, and there a Fibonacci subsqeuence appears to be emerging (...2,3,5,8...). In this paper, I provide a formula for P_n for those n that follow this pattern:h(n) = n + ⌈(log_φ (-(n - 1)(√5 - √5φ) + φ³)) - 4⌉ - 1 , and test it against published upper and lower bounds for P_n for n ≤ 10000.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

Quantum Gravity Without Quantization

Authors: Michael A. Ivanov
Comments: 8 Pages. Current Physics, 2024, 1, e27723348344123. https://doi.org/10.2174/0127723348344123241030061731

An alternative way to construct a quantum model of gravity is described, not by quantizing the classical model, but by introducing a graviton background, which has a low temperature butstrongly interacts with any particle. Gravity in this case is the effect of screening the background of gravitons by bodies; severaladditional effects appear when photons or bodies move through the background. These small additional effects can be important forcosmology, since they allow us to describe the results of cosmological observations without dark energy.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

The Unified Midpoint Density Theorem A Structural Proof of the Infinitude of Twin Prime Pairs

Authors: Quency Nixon
Comments: 5 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a deterministic, structural proof of the Twin Prime Conjecture, moving beyond traditional probabilistic models. We introduce the "Midpoint Generator" (Mn = Pn/2), a geometric center of gravity that necessitates the existence of Twin Prime pairs at every scale of the number line. We define the "Recursive Binary Descent," an algorithm that mechanically links candidate pairs at infinite scales to verified Twin Primes in a finite "Safe Haven." Finally, using a Proof by Contradiction, we demonstrate that the assumption of a finite number of Twin Prime pairs creates a structural paradox, thereby proving that the set of TwinPrime pairs must be infinite.
Category: Number Theory

Operator-Level Prompting as Soft Behavioural Control in LLMs: Evidence from a 7.4× Manifold Compression

Authors: Claire Nicholson
Comments: 17 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

Large language models often exhibit behavioural variability, adversarial drift, and structural inconsistency across repeated generations. This study presents empirical evidence that a structured prompt operator, referred to as the HelixScribe operator, can reliably stabilise these behaviours without modifying model weights. Across more than 1,100 generations spanning 120 paired business scenarios, the operator induced a compact behavioural manifold approximately 7.4 times smaller than that produced by vanilla prompting, with a centroid shift of 3.35σ in six-dimensional metric space. Outputs remained stable even under conflicting or adversarial instructions, whereas vanilla prompting showed marked degradation. These results suggest that operator-level syntax can act as a form of soft behavioural control, producing fine-tuning-like stability through prompt structure alone.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The Transformative Impact of Artificial Intelligence on US Labor Markets: Workforce Disruption, Skill Evolution, and the Emergence of Prompt Engineering

Authors: Satyadhar Joshi
Comments: 35 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This comprehensive analysis examines the profound impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on global labor markets, focusing on workforce disruption patterns, emerging skill requirements, and the critical rise of prompt engineering as a core competency. Drawing from over 70 authoritative sources, we find that AI is expected to affect approximately 40% of jobs globally, with generative AI potentially transforming up to 90% of existing occupations. While automation may displace 85 million jobs by 2025, it is projected to create 97 million new roles, representing a net positive employment shift. The impact, however, varies by region—advanced economies face higher disruption levels (around 60% of jobs affected), compared to emerging markets (40%) and low-income countries (26%).Prompt engineering has emerged as an essential cross-domain skill, spanning finance, healthcare, education, and creative industries. Organizations implementing structured AI training programs report 45—60% improvements in workforce adaptation and productivity, with prompt engineering training yielding performance effect sizes between 1.24 and 1.32 standard deviations based on current literature. These findings highlight the shifting nature of human—AI collaboration and underscore the urgency of integrating AI literacy and prompt design into professional development frameworks.This research concludes with strategic recommendations for policymakers, educators, and industry leaders, advocating for proactive investment in AI literacy, adaptive workforce policies, and equitable access to AI skill development. Such measures are critical to harness AI’s transformative potential while mitigating displacement risks, fostering resilient and inclusive labor markets in the era of intelligent automation. All results and proposals are from cited literature.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

[Introduction] to Finite Groups

Authors: Teo Banica
Comments: 400 Pages.

This is an introduction to the finite groups, with focus on the groups of permutations and reflections, and more generally, on the finite groups of unitary matrices. We first discuss the basics of group theory, featuring the cyclic, dihedral and symmetric groups, and the structure result for finite abelian groups. Then we study the complex reflection groups, with general theory and examples, classification results, and with a look into braid groups too. We then go into the study of representation theory, and of more advanced aspects, such as Tannakian duality, Brauer theorems and Clebsch-Gordan rules. Finally, we discuss, using representation theory methods, a number of advanced analytic aspects, for the most in relation with questions coming from probability.
Category: Algebra

A Resolution to the Collatz Conjecture

Authors: Michael Spencer
Comments: 63 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references of other authorities besides self-citations and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a complete arithmetic resolution of the Collatz Conjecture by separating its structure into two complementary components: a finite residue and phase transition system, and a global affine counting framework. The reverse Collatz step is shown to act only on the two live odd residue classes, and every valid reverse exponent produces a predictable affine expansion whose inverse matches the expected dyadic frequency. From this, every odd integer belongs to exactly one uniquely defined dyadic slice, forming a disjoint partition of all odd numbers. Independently, a zero-state index reveals that every live odd number also generates a unique sequence obtained by repeatedly applying the transformation four times the number plus one, and these sequences likewise partition the odd integers without overlap. The two partitions are proven to be identical, establishing a single global organizational structure for the entire Collatz map. Because the forward and reverse processes are locked to each other and the residue-phase system is finite, every forward trajectory follows one non-branching path that must ultimately return to one. This eliminates the possibility of infinite growth or nontrivial cycles. All structural components, classifications, and counting methods are original to this work and together provide a fully closed arithmetic description of the Collatz dynamics.
Category: Number Theory

Gravitational-Polarity Symmetry: A New Balance of Matter, Antimatter, and Spacetime

Authors: Juraj Povazanec
Comments: 12 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper challenges the assumed equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass for antimatter. While this principle is well tested for ordinary matter, its unsupported extension to antimatter represents a fundamental philosophical error. We argue that rejecting this equivalence, while challenging conservation laws, reveals a critical disconnect between General Relativity and Quantum Field Theory. Forcing both frameworks to accommodate this result imposes a new symmetry, paving a novel path toward their unification.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A Spectral Characterization of Primes Via Paley Graph Eigenvalues

Authors: F. F. Martinez Gamo
Comments: 7 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

We present computational evidence for a novel spectral characterization of prime numbers through the Laplacian eigenvalues of Paley-type graphs. For integers n ≡ 1 (mod 4), we demonstrate that the second smallest Laplacian eigenvalue λu2082 of the graph constructed from quadratic residues modulo n satisfies λu2082(G) = (n - √n)/2 if and only if n is prime, with numerical precision limited only by floating-point accuracy (~10u207b¹u2075). Composite numbers exhibit substantial deviation from this formula, with gaps ranging from 3 to over 60 for n < 300. Statistical analysis over 29 primes and 30 composites shows a separation ratio exceeding 10¹u2075 between prime and composite gap magnitudes. This result establishes a connection between number-theoretic primality and graph spectral properties, with implications for understanding the algebraic structure of finite fields versus rings with zero divisors.
Category: Number Theory

A Kinetic Route to the Lorentz Transform and Beyond

Authors: Jayanta Majumder
Comments: 9 Pages.

We model an elementary particle as a closed, lightlike intrinsic motion with rest-cycle period $tau$ that can undergo bodily translation without ever exceeding speed~$c$. A local triangle construction and cycle averaging yield the Pythagorean relation $T^{2}=tau^{2}+(x/c)^{2}$, where $x$ is the net spatial advance of the wavefront over one intrinsic cycle. Interpreting the exchange between intrinsic cycling ($T$) and bodily shift ($x/c$) as a symmetric two-channel kinetics with rate $k(t)$ integrates to a hyperbolic rotation (Lorentz boost) with rapidity $phi=int k,dt$ and $v/c=tanhphi$. In the small-signal limit this identifies $k=F/(mc)$, linking the kinetic picture to Newton's second law while the $tanh$ nonlinearity enforces the $c$ bound. We also give a physical reading of emph{relative rapidity} as the net logarithmic bias needed to map between motion states.
Category: Statistics

Topological Geometrodynamics in Rotating Spacetime: Emergence of Elementary Charge from Einstein-Cartan-Born-Infeld Gravity

Authors: Dapeng Zhu
Comments: 3 Pages. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17650976 (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The Standard Model of particle physics relies on the point-particle hypothesis, which inherentlyleads to renormalization divergences and fails to derive the elementary charge e from first principles. In this article, we propose a non-perturbative geometric unification model where the electron is reconstructed as a toroidal photon soliton confined within a Kerr-Newman vacuum background. By unifying Einstein-Cartan gravity with Born-Infeld electrodynamics, we demonstrate that the stability of such solitons arises from the dynamical equilibrium between torsion-induced gravitational attraction and non-linear electromagnetic repulsion at the Schwinger limit. We rigorously derive theelementary charge as a topological winding number, corrected by a metric coupling factor χ ≈ 1.092 which arises from the frame-dragging effect of the rotating vacuum. This geometric correction successfully resolves the long-standing 8.5% discrepancy in the semi-classical Williamson-van der Mark model. Furthermore, we discuss the phenomenological consistency of this extended structure with high-energy scattering experiments via Bjorken scaling. The model suggests that the Higgs field is the order parameter of a torsion condensate, providing a unified geometric origin for mass, charge, and the cosmological constant.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Construction and Biological Significance of Four Stranded DNA Inverted Cone Windmill Model

Authors: Zuodong Sun
Comments: 5 Pages.

Inspired by the structure of the potassium channel "origami windmill" model, and combining the multi-strand folding characteristics of DNA molecules, ion regulation mechanisms, and genetic information transmission rules, a four-strand DNA inverted cone windmill model is proposed, breaking through the linear structural limitations of the traditional double helix model.The model utilizes a four-stranded DNA core scaffold, forming a windmill-like radial spatial conformation through a "double ladder inverted" mechanism. The strands are stabilized by hydrogen bonding, base stacking, and ionic regulation, while relying on the "single ladder inheritance"mechanism to achieve precise transmission of genetic information.This article elaborates on the construction lineage, structural characteristics, genetic mechanism, and potential biological significance of the model, providing a new perspective for the study of DNA multi-strand structure and genetic regulation.
Category: Biochemistry

Why Simultaneity Must be Absolute Inconsistency in the Theory of Special Relativity

Authors: Bhagat Singh Rajawat
Comments: 11 Pages.

[A]n attempt is made here in the form of a thought experiment to prove that the theory of special relativity is logically inconsistent. It is also attempted to locate precisely what was wrong in his 1905 paper. The entire theory is pivoted on Einstein’s conclusion that simultaneity is relative, not absolute. From this notion only he derives the Lorentz transformation equations, from which emerge the ideas of time dilation and length contraction - which automatically stand invalid if the absoluteness of simultaneity is proved.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

On the Implementability of the Communist Social System

Authors: Ding Jian
Comments: 11 Pages.

The major social systems in the world today all aim for fairness as their pursued goal. Whether Western or Eastern democracy, the obedience of the minority to the majority is a common rule for both. The flaw lies in imposing the consensus of part of the people on others. And truth is absolute fairness, meaning unanimous consensus, which lies herein as the key that truly drives social progress today. Although truth must have absoluteness and immutability, and does not exist in reality, and belongs to the category of metaphysics, it has continuity with relevant objective things in reality, and its intrinsic mechanism is inertia. Based on this, I initially created the "Trialism on Things' Limits", which resolved the dilemma that truth had no place to reside in dualism and could only be passed over ambiguously, and expanded the philosophical view of materialism to the category of metaphysics. This means that the communist social system is based on the current democratic systems (which belong to dualism) both in the East and the West to add unanimous consensus as a third aspect, and a unity of opposites is formed by virtue of the absoluteness of truth together with the democracy and centralism in reality. With the reasonable return of methodology from dualism to trialism, ambiguity breeds chaos whereas consensus harbors peace. This is a new connotation provided for how to implement the community with a shared future for mankind on the basis of theoretical innovation.
Category: Social Science

Making a Cayley Group Table With a TI84 Calculator

Authors: Timothy Jones
Comments: 3 Pages. There was a slight error in the previous version: S4 is not the symmetries of a square.

We quickly define permutation group S3 and then make a Cayley Table for it. We use a surprisingly simple program written on a TI84-CE calculator.
Category: Algebra

Theory of Similarity of Micro and Macro Cosmic Systems

Authors: Ioan Virgil
Comments: 161 Pages.

This work was conceived as a study tool, in order to expand the horizon of knowledge of the universe, by establishing some relationships of similarity between the microcosm and the macrocosm, regarding the ways of organizing matter in the two micro and macrocosmic levels, taking into account the interaction relationships of particles, respectively of bodies, existing in a certain space. If we refer to the form of organization of matter, we observe that at the microcosm level, matter is presented in granular, discrete form, such as; electrons, nucleons, mesons and other particles, while at the macrocosm level matter is presented in the form of satellites, planets, stars, nebulae, etc. Both in the microcosm and in the macrocosm matter is organized in systems of particles or celestial bodies, which are characterized by a periodic movement in a central field. In other words, cosmic systems of any size are rotational harmonic oscillators, in a permanent state of energetic balance with the environment. Any deviation from this balance leads to manifestations of energy absorption or emission from the respective systems, until their energetic rebalancing with the environment. If in the microcosm these energy exchanges can be observed in the laboratory in real time, in the macrocosm the events occur in thousands or millions of years, becoming impossible to study in their entirety. Although the nature of the fields that interact in the microcosm is different from that of the macrocosm fields, namely the electromagnetic and gravitational fields, they still have a common characteristic, that of being the binder of matter organized in harmonic systems, having an unlimited range of action, whose intensity decreases with the square of the distance, ensuring the conditions for the organization of particles or bodies in micro or macrocosm systems. This work was conceived as a study tool, in order to expand the horizon of knowledge of the universe, by establishing some relationships of similarity between the microcosm and the macrocosm, regarding the ways of organizing matter in the two micro and macrocosmic levels, taking into account the interaction relationships of particles, respectively of bodies, existing in a certain space. (Truncated by viXra Admin)
Category: Astrophysics

A Structural Resolution to the Halting Problem: Bijective Guarantee of the Collatz Conjecture via Peano-Cantor Integration

Authors: Shinsuke Hamaji
Comments: 12 Pages. [Submitted to a journal]; Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zen (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

Abstract: This paper identifies the fundamental difficulty of the long-unresolved Collatz Conjecture as stemming from an unconscious self-limitation in conventional mathematics—specifically, a structural ``lack of collaboration'' between the linear definition of natural numbers (Peano Axioms) and non-linear structural analysis (Cantor's Set Theory). We propose that, to solve a non-linear Halting Problem like the Collatz Conjecture, the proof must prioritize the structural fundamental of ``symmetry of the start and stop point ($1$)'' instead of adhering to linear methods. Specifically, we resolve the ``bijective definition deficit'' of the mapping existing between specific sub-patterns (e.g., $4n+1 leftrightarrow 3n+1$) derived from the Collatz operation, by using Cantor's dimensional expansion pairing function. This method reconstructs the Collatz operation as a closed, bijective structure centered at $1$, structurally and completely excluding the possibility of cycles other than $1$ and divergence to infinity. This represents a structural solution that, by integrating the Peano Axioms and Cantor's Set Theory, rigorously guarantees the global stability of the Collatz infinite tree for the first time.Keywords: Collatz, Tree Equivalence Theorem, Peano's Successor Function, Cantor's Pairing Function.MSC 2020: 03D50, 11B83.
Category: Number Theory

The Great Pyramid: a 1:100,000-Scale Geodetic-Celestial Model of the Awash River System

Authors: Diogo Sennfelt
Comments: 12 Pages.

This paper proposes that the Great Pyramid of Giza encodes a precise 1:100,000-scale geodetic-celestial model of the Awash River system in Ethiopia, integrating the monument’s external geometry and internal architecture (chambers, shafts, Grand Gallery, and passages) with an astronomical-hydrological template originating in the Afar Depression ~38 ka BP (Meeus1998,Spence2000). The model identifies Dama Ale volcano — then a volcanic island in paleo-Lake Abhe Bad — as the Late Upper Palaeolithic archetype that determined both the astronomical timing and the geodetic layout of Giza in 2550 BCE.At 1:100,000 vertical scale, the pyramid’s three principal chambers map directly onto the Awash’s major basins: the Subterranean Chamber to paleo-Lake Abhe Bad, the Queen’s Chamber to hypersaline Lake Basaka, and the King’s Chamber to freshwater Lake Ziway (Lehner1997,Gasse2000). Passage lengths, shaft slopes, and relieving-chamber counts correspond to tributary rivers, feeder lakes, and island configurations, while the coffer’s westward offset mirrors Tulu Gudo island’s position in Lake Ziway — the centrepiece of a seven-island archipelago that reproduces the Pleiades cluster.The Khafre causeway’s great-circle alignment to Dama Ale (2,345 km, lateral deviation <15 m, ~0.4 arcsecond precision) provides independent geodetic confirmation of a deliberate Egypt—Afar axis (Lehner1997). This fixed terrestrial vector preserved the memory of the First-Time sky across precessional drift, transforming Giza into a functional precessional and hydrological observatory that reactivated an ancient Afar template in imperishable stone. The model offers the first unified explanation for the pyramid’s entire internal architecture and reinterprets the monument as a cosmic machine for the soul’s ascent along the Awash River of Souls. The topographic configuration of the Dama Ale paleo-island during the African Humid Period — a volcanic mound encircled by concentric paleo-shorelines and catastrophically inundated near the end of the Younger Dryas — bears a striking resemblance to Plato’s description of Atlantis (concentric rings of land and water, sudden disappearance into the sea. (Timaeus, 24e-25d, Critias 113c-121c). This parallel is noted here for context but lies outside the primary geodetic-astronomical scope of the present study.
Category: Archaeology

The Fine Parameters of the Universe by ξ-α Arising from the Infinite Potential of Random Tests

Authors: Dominique Mareau
Comments: 15 Pages.

Beyond the Standard Model, DUO5 theory relies on the inevitable physical consequences of the inertial paradox {m > 0; m ≡ 0} ∄∄[1]. This paradox justifies the state of a stochastic and steady-state universe, which is the origin of the state of the observable universe. The existence of the dipolar preon is forced by this paradox to obtain an indispensable algebraic zero of the type {Δmℓ→ + Δmℓ← ≡ 0}, failing the impossibility of absolute zero. The preon is the elementary particle common to spacetime and matter, as proposed by John Wheeler [2]. The stochastic and steady-state has no {mass-spacetime} continuum. The non-flow of time makes possible a near-infinite potential of {entropy↔negentropy} cycles of an informational type [1]. The non-flow of time allows for an almost infinite number of mostly sterile random trials. Statistically, there is a non-zero probability of obtaining a fruitful result through the fine parameters ξ-α that characterize the observable universe. It is shown here how the ξ-α duality operates at all scales. Several verifiable and falsifiable relationships account for the numerical value of ξ while indicating its physical role arising from the inertial paradox.
Category: Astrophysics

Meta-Adaptive Context Engineering: A Learned Framework for Optimizing Individual AI Agents Beyond Single-Dimension Approaches

Authors: Alberto Romero
Comments: 29 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

Recent advances in large language model (LLM) agent optimization reveal a fundamental imitation: single-dimension approaches—whether context engineering, test-time compute, or parameter tuning—are increasingly being surpassed by sophisticated hybrid systems that adaptively orchestrate multiple optimization strategies. We analyze Agentic Context Engineering (ACE) and 50+ papers from 2024-2025 to identify critical gaps in current optimization paradigms. Building on this analysis, we propose Meta-Adaptive Context Engineering (Meta-ACE), a novel framework that addresses ACE’s core limitations through adaptive multi-strategy optimization with learned meta-policies. Meta-ACE introduces a learned meta-controller that dynamically composes optimization strategies based on real-time assessment of task characteristics, model confidence, and feedback reliability. Rather than applying uniform context engineering, Meta-ACE treats optimization as a sequential decision problem, learning to allocate computational budget across six strategies: minimalcontext, ACE-style reflection, test-time compute, hierarchical verification, adaptive memory, and selective test-time training. Our framework addresses three critical limitations of ACE: dependency on strong reflectors, vulnerability to poor feedback quality, and uniform processing regardless of task complexity. Through hierarchical fallbacks, quality gates, and meta-reinforcement learning on diverse task distributions, Meta-ACE enables graceful degradation and achieves projected improvements of 8-11% on agent benchmarks and 6-8% on domain-specific tasks, while reducing computational costs by 30-40% through adaptive resource allocation. This work demonstrates that comprehensive, multi-dimensional optimization with learned coordination represents the next frontier in building robust, efficient, and self-improving AI agent systems. efficient, and self-improving AI agent systems.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Review of Minkowski Space and Lorentz Transformation: a New Theory of Relativity Based on Universal Quantum

Authors: Chol Jong, Un Chol Han
Comments: 76 Pages.

The theory of relativity is an important pillar supporting modern physics along with quantum theory, but the open questions present in this theory require revolutionizing the perspective on relativity and mathematical foundations of relativity. We present a generalized theory of relativity, which becomes a consequence of a unified mechanics based on the universal quantum postulated as a primitive elementary particle constituting physical vacuum and matter. Our theory does not require the fun-damental postulates of the theory of relativity, such as the principle of relativity, the principle of the constancy of the speed of light, and the principle of equivalence, and needs only the universal quantum to formulate a new theory of relativity, but explains relativistic effects successfully. Our work shows that the idea for the unified space-time which gives the Lorentz transformation is not mathematically and physically justified. We first analyze from a new angle the concepts, principles and results of the special theory of relativity and prove that it is impossible to construct a theory of relativity using geometry in the Minkowski space. We introduce the concept of the universal quantum concretizing the concept of the ether and construct a consistent theory of relativity based on the concept of the density of universal quanta and of effective time of interaction, without recourse of Einstein’s relativity theory. We construct new relativistic dynamics and electrodynamics based on the effective time of interaction. We formulate a new theory of gravity able to explain relativistic effects, based on the concept of the universal quantum without using the concept of space-time. Thus, our work achieves the aim of constructing a consistent theory of relativity by means of a single mechanism based on the concept of the universal quantum in a unified way to include inertial frames and noninertial frames altogether.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Classic Tests of Einstein's Theory-the Shapiro Radar Echo Delay Calculated With the Snell’s Law

Authors: Leonardo Rubino
Comments: 32 Pages.

The Shapiro radar echo delay [is] calculated with the Snell’s Law.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Evolving Web: Darwinian Theory of Everything

Authors: Salar Yousefzadeh
Comments: 18 Pages. License: CC-BY 4.0

This paper proposes a unified framework in which biology and physics are continuous manifestations of a single evolving causal web governed by two fundamental organizing principles: locality and relativity of local causalities. Local causal interactions constitute the elementary currency of change within this dynamic web. Persistence (memory) and stability emerge as relatively stable local interactions embedded in an ever-changing network. Apparent top-down or bottom-up causation does not represent a distinct causal category but arises from the accumulated history of local interactions. Reconceptualizing biology as a causal network in which natural selection shows as an emergent effect allows us to view the physical world as a seamless continuation of the same web operating acrossdifferent boundaries. Mass, forces, and motion are reinterpreted as manifestations and flows of causality governed by the same principles of locality, relationality, and historical embedding. In this framework, relativity is not primarily a theory of inertial frames or the measurement of clocks and rods, but a description of how local causality is dynamically organized and reassigned through relative motion within the network.The quantum domain represents a further extension of this evolving causal web. Experimental choices and measurement outcomes are co-determined by the web’s historical structure, eliminating the need for genuine nonlocality to explain quantum correlations. The universe is thus neither a sterile clockwork governed by eternal Platonic laws nor a collection of disconnected parts; it is a single, interconnected, evolving web.
Category: Physics of Biology

A New Class of Prime Numbers Based on Two Distinct Regular Alternating Gap Sequences and Their Predictive Properties

Authors: Christoper Muoki Mututu
Comments: 10 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

Prime numbers have fascinated mathematicians for centuries due to their inherent unpredictability and fundamental role in number theory. Despite extensive research into their distribution and patterns, primes continue to surprise and challenge scholars. The Riemann Hypothesis, one of the most famous unsolved problems in mathematics, is a prime example of this unpredictability. This paper introduces a newly discovered class of prime numbers which under two distinct alternating gap sequences — 2,4,2 and 12,14,12 - predict the occurrence of six additional primes, either forward or in reverse, a phenomenon previously unknown in the study of prime numbers. This work offers not only a novel approach to prime generation but also introduces the idea that primes themselves can act as building blocks for other primes, leading to new methods of understanding prime distribution and its profound implications for both theoretical and applied mathematics.
Category: Number Theory

Time-Partition Model of the Cosmos Reveals Helical Momentum as Fifth Fundamental Force

Authors: Robert B. Pendleton
Comments: 19 Pages. CC BY 4.0. Orcid ID: 0009-0004-6348-0678

Hubble tension, together with results from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument showing time-dependence of dark energy, indicate that the standard model of the universe is inadequate, and the list of unsolved problems in cosmology and physics is uncomfortably long. Here I introduce a theoretical description of a simple geometric model that offers intuitive solutions to these problems and a broad range of unexplained natural phenomena. The Time-Partition Model of the Cosmos is based upon the assumption that the initial singularity was spinning at high angular velocity prior to the Big Bang, resulting in extremely high angular momentum. Big-Bang expansion converts angular momentum into Universal Helical Momentum (UHM), the fifth fundamental force, and dark energy is revealed as a fictitious centrifugal force that we perceive in our spiraling, non-inertial frame of reference. The model conforms to known physical laws, unites the fundamental forces as either centripetal or centrifugal forces of helical motion, and reveals the physical reality of dark energy, dark matter, zero-point energy, and time. UHM acting together with the force of gravitational attraction is the kinetic force that drives matter into helices and continuously higher levels of complexity at every scale, and as such, is the counterbalance to Brownian motion and entropy.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

On the Forces Acting Between Interacting Objects

Authors: Tai-Choon Yoon
Comments: 6 Pages.

If there are two objects of unknown mass. To determine the ratio of their weights, in nature, all we need is a weightless rod and a fulcrum. If we place two objects on the rod and fulcrum at the balance point, then the balance point becomes the barycenter. Measuring the distance between them from the barycenter yields the relationship m_1 r_1= m_2 r_2. Now, differentiating each distance with respect to time yields p= m_1 v_1= m_2 v_2, which defines Newton's first law of motion, momentum. Therefore, interacting between two objects has two opposing momenta. Newton's second law is the law of acceleration. Differentiating one momentum of the two momenta with respect to time gives F=ma. Since interaction is mutually attractive forces between two objects, it is the sum of the two forces between two objects. In other words, 2F=2ma. Newton's third law, the law of action and reaction, is two forces with opposite directions repel each other, but the result is the same as interaction. In Newton's law of universal gravitation, gravity also applies equally to the interaction between two objects. The gravitational force is 2F=2G Mm/r^2 . In the former case, kinetic energy is E_k= mv^2, and gravitational energy is E_g= 2GMm/r. If the two energies are equal, the relation between the two becomes v^2= 2GM/r. This is the same equation given in the Einstein field equation. When an object moves at the speed of light, all of the object's mass convert to energy, which is Einstein's energy-mass equivalence principle, E=mc^2. Furthermore, if we extend the Newton's law of universal gravitation, the law of universal gravitation between three bodies becomes 2F= 2G((m_1 m_2)/〖r_12〗^2 + (m_1 m_3)/〖r_13〗^2 + (m_2 m_3)/〖r_23〗^2 ).
Category: Classical Physics

A Novel Proof of the Collatz Conjecture Through Sequence Analysis

Authors: Immense Raj Subedi
Comments: 13 Pages.

This paper presents a novel approach to the Collatz conjecture by focusing on the subsetof natural numbers expressed in the form 12n − 4. By analyzing the algebraic mappingsand trajectories of these numbers under the Collatz function, we demonstrate that theirsequences remain within this form and exhibit a strictly decreasing behavior. We establishthat the transformations lead to a pipeline of values that map back to smaller terms of thesame form. Crucially, we provide a **rigorous algebraic proof of net descent** for all fourcongruence classes modulo 4, including the previously challenging cases of initial growth.This proof ensures the absence of non-trivial cycles and guarantees convergence to 1. Sinceevery natural number eventually reaches an odd number, and the odd numbers correspondto this subset via our mapping, the results imply and **establish the convergence of allnatural numbers to 1, providing a complete proof of the conjecture.**
Category: Number Theory

Quantum Field Theory of Dirac Magnetic Monopoles and Their Interpretation as Cold Dark Matter WIMPs

Authors: Rainer W. Kühne
Comments: 22 Pages.

Dirac magnetic monopoles are hypothetical elementary particles. By assuming their existence one can explain the quantization of electric charge, the August Kundt experiment, and the conservation of baryon and lepton number. Here I present a new nomenclature where I redefine isospin and hypercharge. By doing so I explain baryon and lepton number conservation as an effect of the electric-magnetic duality and the $U(1)times U(1)$ gauge symmetry of quantum electromagnetodynamics. By using this method I predict the quantum numbers of an octet of magnetic monopoles. Another surprising result is that both leptons and quarks have nonzero magnetic isospin, a new quantum number. Moreover I show that Dirac magnetic monopoles can form low-mass bound states which are analogous to mesons, baryons, atoms, and molecules. I point out that these bound states could be the major component of cold dark matter. The PandaX Collaboration reported an excess of 4.3 events above the background in the PandaX-4T experiment. The best fit for this excess was obtained for a WIMP mass of 6 GeV. Here I show that both the mass and the interaction cross-section are compatible with bound states of Dirac magnetic monopoles.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Galileo's Paradox and a New Way to Compare Sizes of Infinite Sets

Authors: Marko V. Jankovic
Comments: 5 Pages.

n this paper Galileo's paradox is going to be analyzed. It will be shown that there is no paradox, but rather animprecise analysis in which very big numbers were not treated with the utmost care. A new method for comparison ofthe sizes of infinite sets will be introduced
Category: General Mathematics

Why Current AI Architectures are Not Conscious: Neural Networks as Spinfoam Networks in a Theory of Quantum Gravity

Authors: Trevor Alexander Nestor
Comments: 113 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org in the future)

Classical deep neural networks excel at many tasks and even multimodal generative outputs but remain energetically inefficient by orders of magnitude from the human brain, lack mechanisms for integrated binding, and have been argued toexhibit no genuine route to consciousness. While inspired by neural architectures in brain tissue, deep neural networks face limitations such as scaling limits. Drawing on loop quantum gravity (LQG) and the Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch -OR)theory of consciousness, we introduce a framework model of Neural Spinfoam Net-works (NSNs), a bio-inspired AI paradigm in which each neural layer is recast asa spin-network and each learning update as a spinfoam transition by means of gravitational collapse at a phase transition at entropic limits described by a UV/IR fixed point and by the Monster Conformal Field Theory (Monster CFT). Our novel theoretical model leverages Majorana-fermion braiding within spinfoam geometries and a gravitational feedback loop mediated by Majorana biophotons to achieveone-shot, polynomial -time credit assignment for the NP-hard perceptual binding problem. The network’s global state is encoded by a noncommutative-geometry spectral triple (A, H, D), where the Dirac-like dilation operator’s smallest nonzero eigenvalue corresponds directly to the shortest nonzero lattice vector, thereby achieving perceptual binding by means of gravitationally induced phase transition, forming the basis for a more plausible mechanism of backpropagation and weight transportthat are currently unexplained by classical models of brain function. Periodic Floquetdriving and the Cayley -transformed microtubule Hamiltonian yield topologically protected, room-temperature quantum coherence in tubulin-analogous nodes. Recent demonstrations of microtubule superradiance and time -crystalline oscillations within brain tissue further substantiate sustained entangled states and ultrafast biophotonic readout as described by Orch-Or theory, in spite of criticisms, which are discussed.
Category: Mind Science

About the Possibility of Obtaining Information from the Future (О возможности получения информации из Будущего)

Authors: A. V. Antipin
Comments: 14 Pages. In Russian (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This article is a communication clarifying the results of our paper [1] in connection with the discovery of additional data. Based on the data from the numerical lottery results: over 13 years, 669 draws, 7,135,083,551 participating variants, a systematic excess of the probability of winning over the theoretical value was found. Thus, the results of the current study, in general, coincided with previous results. Therefore, based on both the study [1] and the present, we confirm our opinion about the high, statistically justified confidence that humans, as a species, have the ability to foresee. More detailed discussions on various aspects of the study are described in the article [1]. Due to the fact that they have not changed, they are not reproduced here.

Данная статья является сообщением, уточняющим результаты нашей статьи [1] в связи обнаружением дополнительных данных. На основании данных по результатам числовой лотереи: за 13 лет, 669 тиражей, 7 135 083 551 участвовавших вариантов, обнаружено систематическое превышение вероятности выигрыша над теоретическим значением. Т.о., результаты текущего исследования, в целом, совпали с предыдущими результатами. Поэтому, на основании как исследования [1], так и настоящего, мы подтверждаем своё мнение о большой, статистически обоснованной уверенности в том, что человек, как вид, обладает способностью к предвидению. Более развёрнутые обсуждения, касающиеся различных аспектов исследования, изложены в статье [1]. В силу того, что они не изменились, здесь они не воспроизводятся.
Category: Mind Science

Einstein Equations from a Timeless Euclidean Model: Operational Reconstruction and the Compensation Principle

Authors: Andrey N. Smirnov
Comments: 35 Pages. Published in Int'l J. of Quantum Foundations, 12(2): pp. 372-402

We derive Einstein’s field equations as emergent from a timeless Euclidean model on four-dimensional Euclidean space E^4 with a single fundamental scalar field Phi satisfying the Laplace equation Delta_E4 Phi = 0. Building on an operational reconstruction of Lorentz transformations for observable transformations M on a fixed slice, we then allow slow variation of the foliation direction n_A(x) and introduce an effective Lorentzian metric g_AB defined in terms of the unit normal n_A and the induced Euclidean metric h_AB.A compensation principle, expressed as delta S_eff + delta S_g = 0 and imposed under the assumptions of locality, diffeomorphism invariance and at most second order in derivatives, together with preservation of the null cone under M on each slice, uniquely fixes the second-order local density. Using the Gauss—Codazzi identities, this density is equivalent to the Einstein—Hilbert action with the Gibbons—Hawking—York boundary term. Variation of the total action yields field equations of the form G_AB + Lambda g_AB = 8 pi G T_AB^eff with covariant conservation nabla^A T_AB^eff = 0; the Newtonian limit fixes the normalization of G.The requirement of causal reconstruction implies a hierarchy of length scales, L_field << L_fol, and the recovery of the Newtonian limit, as well as the universality of gravity: all effective fields couple minimally through the same metric g. This renders field-dependent light cones observationally inadmissible and ensures falsifiability. In addition, we obtain a local upper bound on the hierarchy parameter epsilon = L_field / L_fol <= epsilon_max << 1, which leads to testable bounds on deviations from the special- and general-relativistic regime.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Violation of the Equilibrium of Working Bodies Causes Torsion of the Suspension Thread

Authors: Viktor Strohm
Comments: 7 Pages.

This study demonstrates experimentally that a suspension thread can undergo torsional motion when the mass or spatial configuration of the working bodies in a torsion system is altered. Two experimental setups are proposed to investigate thread twisting caused by disrupting the mechanical equilibrium through changes in the effective arm length of the working bodies.
Category: Classical Physics

Corpusculatory-Simple Theory[:] The Dark Side of Matter

Authors: V. F. Chibisov, I. V. Chibisov
Comments: 14 Pages.

According to data from the Planck space observatory, the total mass-energy of the observable universe consists of 4.9% ordinary (baryonic) matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.3% dark energy. Thus, the universe is 95.1% dark matter and dark energy. For several decades, science has been struggling to understand these dark entities and to experimentally detect their carriers. This article attempts to answer these questions.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Quantum Mechanics - Ontology Meets Epistemology

Authors: Joseph Palazzo
Comments: 3 Pages.

At issue: the nature of reality (ontology) and the pursuit of knowledge (epistemology). At quantum scale, ontology meets epistemology. What is proposed in this paper is an alternative interpretation of quantum behavior.A starting point different than the historical demystify certain concepts in QM.
Category: Quantum Physics

Replacement for the Linear No-Threshold (LNT) Radiation Effects Model

Authors: Nigel B. Cook
Comments: 14 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: For the last time, please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org, please also remove non-academic texts/image)

The corrected, empirically-verified equation for cancer risk from radiation dose D at a particular, specific dose rate is: Y = (Normal cancer risk)(exp(-aD)) + bD, where the first term is the DNA repair enzyme P53 (etc) effect of being stimulated by radiation to reduce damage (radiation unbinds P53 from its MDM2 inhibitor) and the second term, bD, is the usual LNT "law" for uncorrected damage accumulation which increases with dose. Though cientifically justified by data, this currently doesn't pass through the so-called "Overton window"; the range of ideas that are considered "acceptable" at a given time. The Linear No-Threshold (LNT) model, adopted in the late 1950s for radiation protection, assumes cancer risk is strictly proportional to total absorbed dose with no threshold and no beneficial effects. We propose a simple, continuous, biologically grounded replacement law that (i) recovers LNT exactly in the high-dose-rate limit, (ii) quantitatively reproduces observed hormesis at environmental and occupational dose-rates, and (iii) is derived from the known saturation kinetics of the p53—MDM2 DNA-repair system.
Category: Physics of Biology

A Universal Notation for Plotting Lines

Authors: Faiz Qamar
Comments: 64 Pages.

When faced with curves that defy standard expressions, those that one may regard as, in simpler terms, chaotic or random, this may prompt a question: Is there a way to describe them uniformly, without patching new rules each time? Herein, we will explore one such attempt.
Category: Geometry

The Rebirth of Philosophy

Authors: Ding Jian
Comments: 14 Pages.

There is continuity between truth and the relevant objective things in reality, and its intrinsic mechanism is inertia. Inertia is an inherent characteristic of objective things, and truth resides there. Inertia generates continuity, which is a necessary condition for reasoning. It can go from the quantitative change of real space all the way deep into the qualitative change of ideal realm, and expand the philosophical view of materialism to the category of metaphysics. In the fundamental part of Eastern and Western philosophy, this absence has been more than two thousand years. From this, it can be seen that the law of the unity of opposites should have been the Trialism, in fact we use it every day, just not deliberately reflected upon. Once a consensus is reached, it means the unification of Eastern and Western philosophies. Based on this, the norms for identifying truth are given, and the true nature of metaphysics is restored through norms and definitions. In addition, the definition of philosophy is discussed and given. The Trialism on things' limits is founded, which resolves the dilemma that truth has no place in Dualism, and thereby uses this theory to perfect materialism as well as the unity of opposites of all knowledge.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Green Function in the Constant Magnetic Field

Authors: Miroslav pardy
Comments: 10 Pages. Original article

We derive the propagator of the spin 1/2 particle in a constant external magnetic field using the specic mathematical techniques by Schwinger, Wu yang Tsai and others.
Category: Quantum Physics

Lunar, Solar (Daily), & Solar (Annual) Kinetic Energy Transfer Drives Tidal Bulge, Pacific Plate & Continental Land Mass Ovement, and the El Nino Southern Oscillation

Authors: Richard F. Cronin
Comments: 13 Pages.

Tidal Pumping is the very well-known Astrophysical phenomenon wherein the gravity of a major celestial body exerts a "pumping" or drag force on a smaller orbiting celestial body as it swings through an eccentric orbit. This force drives tectonics and volcanism. Jupiter’s volcanic moons are paved in basaltic rock, like the ocean floor of the Earth. Jovian moon Io is the most volcanic celestial body in the solar system. Saturn’s tidally pumped moons have cryovolcanoes. Planetary rings were formed by moons ripped apart by tidal pumping forces.As the Earth passes from the Aphelion (July 4, the most distant point in Earth’s orbit) to the Perihelion (Earth’s closest approach to the Sun, approx. Jan. 4), both its rotation and orbital motion speed up. As Earth passes through its Winter Solstice (Dec. 21) and its Perihelion, there is a deceleration, with kinetic energy transfer onto the solid Earth and causing a tidal bulge calculated at 10 to 12 cm. There are limited means for direct observation during this once-per-year transient event. By comparison, the Moon causes a tidal bulge on the solid Earth with a vertical lift of 40 to 55 cm. The gravity of the Sun also exerts a tidal deformation on the solid Earth from day-to-night. The side of the Earth rotating to face the Sun is uplifted 15 to 21 cm. Due to tidal lock with the Earth, the moon has been recontoured into an egg shape, with the broad end facing Earth. This paper extends prior papers that the tidal effects of the Moon, Sun, and Earth’s passage through the Perihelion are principal triggers of tectonic activity and the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) - by exerting tidal bulge (vertical uplift) on highly stressed seismic regions in the near-equatorial South Pacific and releasing seismic heat into the waters of the Equatorial South Pacific. Furthermore, these combined tidal forces have dragged and pushed continental land masses into the Northern Hemisphere. Pertinent references on tidal deformation related to seismic activity are listed. Particular emphasis on references 67 to 75.
Category: Geophysics

New Data Leading to the Conclusion that Matter Does not Attract But Repel Antimatter

Authors: Vaggelis Talios
Comments: 5 Pages.

Today, Physics accepts that matter and antimatter are attracted, with a force proportional to the electromagnetic force. The theory of the Big Bang [2], which is also the established theory for the creation of the Universe, is based on this assumption. According to the Big Bang theory, at the beginning of the creation, more matter than antimatter was created. So after the self-destruction between matter and antimatter, due to the strong attraction between them, a large amount of matter remained that created the Universe. In contrast to the Big Bang theory, the theory of the Chain Reaction [3], which is an alternative theory for the creation, accepts the opposite, namely that matter and antimatter repelled with a very weak force, opposite and proportional to the force of the attraction of two masses. So, according to the Chain Reaction theory, at the beginning of the creation, equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created, which, due to their repulsion, separated and matter created the Universe and antimatter the Antiuniverse. Maybe it was created, and many other Universes and Anti-universes. To date, no theoretical or experimental proof has been given by the established science to the acceptance that matter attracts antimatter. On the contrary, the author of this paper, who is also the author of the Chain Reaction theory, gives a clear proof that leads us to the conclusion that matter repels antimatter; at the same time he also calculates the force of this repulsion, which is equal but opposite to the force of the attraction of two masses.
Category: Classical Physics

The Photon Revealed: A Three-Phase Resonant Model of Photonic Structure and Quantum Emergence

Authors: Faisal Saeed
Comments: 5 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite listed scientific reference and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a novel classical model of the photon as a three-phase resonant electromagnetic system. By analyzing coupled LC oscillators arranged in a symmetric helical configuration, we show that the photon's key quantum properties—quantization, spin, and lossless propagation—emerge naturally from geometry and energy closure. Remarkably, the golden ratio φ emerges as the unique solution to the energy closure condition K² - K - 1 = 0, establishing a fundamental relation for the helical wavelength λ_h = φ × λ. The model provides explicit predictions for the photon’s geometric parameters, including a radius r ≈ 0.202 × λ and helical inclination θ ≈ 52°, and offers a mechanistic, classical explanation for phenomena traditionally considered purely quantum.
Category: Classical Physics

XOR as a Minimal Model of Topological Learning

Authors: Se Kyun Kwon, Hye Neung Kwon
Comments: 5 Pages.

The XOR problem has long been cited as proof that neural networks require nonlinear activation functions to learn nonlinearly separable decision boundaries. We argue that this interpretation is reversed. XOR is not evidence that nonlinearity is required; it is evidence that learning is fundamentally topological. We demonstrate that XOR can be solved by a purely piecewise-linear model, provided that the input space is partitioned into local patches and those patches are reconnected by a learned transition rule.No nonlinear activation is applied to the value branches. The softmax gate acts solely as a transition rule defining the topological partition of the input domain. In this view, learning is the act of cutting and gluing regions of input space—a process that induces a nontrivial holonomy similar to a monopole-like singularity. Because topological quantities are invariant under continuous deformation, all solutions of XOR—whether through ReLU, sigmoid, tanh, high-dimensional lifting, or discrete gating—are merely different coordinate representations of the same topological object.Continuity, differentiability, and analytic activation functions are not the essence of learning; the topology of how input regions are divided and re-attached is.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

In a Universe with Zero Spatial Curvature, Dark Energy Cannot Exist [:] One Result Proves It.

Authors: Fernando Salmon Iza
Comments: 3 Pages.

We have obtained a theoretical result that leads us to believe that a universe with zero spatial curvature is incompatible with the results corresponding to the acceleration of our universe over the last 6 billion years, a phenomenon attributed in the ΛCDM model to the existence of dark energy. To this end, we calculated the scale factor of a universe with zero spatial curvature in the FLRW metric and found that this factor is always linear, thus invalidating the possibility of a positive acceleration of the universe such as that attributed to dark energy. We have demonstrated the linearity of the scale factor in spatially flat universes (k=0) through a mathematical development based on the Friedmann equations and conformally flat metrics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Generalized Equations of Thermodynamics with Nonspecific Hidden Variables

Authors: Pavlo Danylchenko
Comments: 21 Pages.

For the collective gravithermodynamic Gibbs microstates the connection between all thermodynamic potentials and parameters of matter have been found. This connection is realized with the help of four hidden wave functions that can take arbitrary values with certain probability. The possibility of obtaining the known equations of thermodynamic state of real gases is shown based on the use of both their the limit velocities of individual (separate) motion and the mathematicalexpectations precisely of these four nonspecific hidden parameters (wave functions) and functions of them. It is substantiated that in a quasi-equilibrium state, a real gas has spatial homogeneity not only of its entropy but also of the resulting extensive parameter (an indicator the compressibility coefficient). But the radial values of resulting intensive parameter (an indicator of hierarchical complexity and of quasi-equilibrium of cooling down) of a real gas are invariant in time.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Some Applications of a Preon Model

Authors: Fabrizio Vassallo
Comments: 7 Pages.

Some applications of a preon model, presented in previous articles, are proposed. The model derives from the concept of bifurcation from theory of nonlinear dynamical systems applied to particle physics, and predicts the existence of mass quanta linked together by a recursive and scale-invariant relation. It also makes use of the concepts of fractional spin, superluminality and variable dimensions of spacetime.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

The Nonexistence of Nontrivial Cycles in the Collatz Conjectur

Authors: Shuojie Yuan
Comments: 5 Pages.

This paper studies the positive integer solutions of an exponential Diophantine equation of the following form: 3^aX+3^{a-1}+3^{a-2}times2^{b_1}+3^{a-3}times2^{b_1+b_2}ldots+3^{a-a}times2^{b_1+b_2+ldots+b_{a-1}}}{2^{b_1+b_2+ldots+b_a}}=X，where a,X,b_iare positive integers andb_igeq1. This equation arises from the analysis of the cyclic structure of a specific iterative sequence. Through rigorous algebraic derivation and inequality analysis, this paper proves that for any given ageq1 and all sequences of b_i satisfying the conditions, the only positive integer solution to this equation is X=1 . This conclusion reveals the uniqueness of the solution for this class of equations.
Category: Algebra

Matter Ring Around Nothing — Stability Without a Central Mass

Authors: Josef Graf
Comments: 16 Pages. In Deutsch

This study investigates whether rotating rings or full tori of matter can orbit an empty center in a stable configuration, without the need for a central mass such as a black hole or dark matter. Using symmetric mass distributions and classical mechanics, it is shown that the gravitational forces of the ring material can balance the centrifugal forces of its constituents. For a continuous ring, the total mass required is Mring=π⋅Mz, where Mz is the fictitious central mass inferred by an observer. The analysis covers discrete systems (2, 4, 8... bodies) as well as the limiting case of infinitely many particles. Using the Earth-Sun system as an example, it is demonstrated that a stable full torus with a thickness of approximately three Earth radii could replace the Sun's mass. The results suggest that certain observed accretion structures may not require supermassive black holes at their centers.
Category: Astrophysics

Ai that Thinks in Its Mind

Authors: Dimiter Dobrev
Comments: 11 Pages.

If we aim to create AGI, our first job is to enable it understand the world. The key to understanding has a name and that name is world model. This is what AGI must look for. In fact, rather than looking for a model, we will aim to find a description of the world. For this purpose, we need a language for description of worlds. We will use the game of chess to create the language we need. We have already done this in a previous paper, but then the agent was able to see the chessboard, while now it will play blind. Playing without seeing the chessboard makes the problem more complex and requires the addition of abstract ED models. The result will be a world model which will enable AGI think in its mind and plan its actions.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Comparison of the Impacts of Three Types of Plasma-Activated Water on the Seed Germination and Plant Growth of Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa)

Authors: Ramin Mehrabifard, Adriana Misuthova, Zdenko Machala
Comments: 27 Pages.

Cold air plasma typically generates reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), which are transported into water to produce plasma-activated water (PAW). This study examines the effect of PAW produced by three different plasma systems on lettuce: transient spark, fountain dielectric barrier discharge, and microwave plasma. Physiochemical PAW properties and concentrations of RONS (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, nitrite, and nitrate) were measured. Seed germination parameters were recorded in 8-day paper tests. The effect of PAW irrigation was investigated after 6 weeks of plant growth in the soil by measuring the germination rate, plant and root length, dry and fresh plant weight, number of leaves, and photosynthetic pigments. PAW, dependent upon its RONS contents, enhances plant development and affects its physiological parameters.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Energy Dissipation of Photon: an Alternative Theoretical Model of Cosmological Redshift Based on Quantum Optics

Authors: Chol Jong, Un Chol Han
Comments: 15 Pages.

We present an alternative theoretical model andinterpretation of the cosmological redshift based on quantumoptical theory. Our model shows that the energy dissipation of photon due to the interaction of photon with the cosmic matter, electromagnetic vacuum and gravitational field is the main cause of the redshift. Based on the new perspective, the general formula of the cosmological redshift is derived and it is shown that the Hubble law is a special case of this formula. Moreover, the speeding up of the expansion of the universe that the standard cosmological model describes is newly interpreted as a natural result that the newmodel of the redshift provides. Our interpretation of Hubble’s law based on quantum optics is distinguished from the conventional theory in that the theory does not require assumptions such as mysterious dark matter and dark energy that, despite long-term efforts, have not passed experimental test in laboratories at all. Furthermore, our interpretation is free of paradoxical problems associated with dynamic description of the expansion of the universe. Conclusively, it isdemonstrated satisfactorily that the Hubble law is irrelevant to a whole evolution of the universe and instead is due to the energy dissipation of photon interacting with the cosmic matter, electromagnetic vacuum and gravitational field.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Integration of Uu2011Water Continuum Theory with the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Growth: A Unified Flow Model of Reality

Authors: Muhammad Razzaq Aman Wattoo
Comments: 8 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper proposes a unified theoretical framework integrating the Uu2011Water Continuum Theory with the Golden Ratio (ϕ) and the Fibonacci Sequence. While Uu2011Water posits the universe as a continuous medium rather than discrete particles or relativistic distortions, the Golden Ratio represents external proportional expansion, and Fibonacci numbers represent internal developmental sequences governing growth. We formalize a mathematical fusion showing how Fibonacci structures propagate through the Uu2011Water continuum to generate ϕ-based expansions: "Flow"_n=F_n⋅ϕ^n,F_(n+2)=F_(n+1)+F_n,ϕ=(1+√5)/2 [1-3] Advanced modeling includes polar Fibonacci spirals, continuum-based differential equations, and generating functions, establishing a triadic system: internal progression (Fibonacci), external proportionality (ϕ), and medium-based continuity (Uu2011Water).
Category: Number Theory

Elementary Particles Rest Mass Formula and the Weak Interaction2

Authors: Claude Michael Cassano
Comments: 4 Pages.

A single formula for every non-neutrino fermion rest mass is determined based on the E/B triplet electromagnetic-nuclear-weak field-strengths and the Weak Interaction is simply explained based on these field-strengths also determining the W and Z masses.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Theoretical Prediction and Synthesis Pathway for a Metastable Yttrium-Carbon-Hydride (Y—C—H) Superconductor at High Pressures

Authors: Giustino Travaglini
Comments: 4 Pages.

The pursuit of room-temperature superconductivity has recently been dominated by the high-pressure phases of hydrogen-rich materials, such as Hu2083S and LaHu2081u2080. While these binary hydrides exhibit remarkably high critical temperatures (Tc), their stabilization often requires pressures exceeding 150 GPa, limiting their practical scope. In this work, I propose a novel ternary system, Yttrium-Carbon-Hydride (Y—C—H), as a promising candidate for high-Tc superconductivity at reduced pressures. Based on Density Functional Theory (DFT) and evolutionary algorithm predictions, I identify a clathrate-like, face-centered cubic phase with an approximate composition of YCu2080.u2082Hu2081u2080 that is dynamically stable above 50 GPa. My calculations indicate a strong electron-phonon coupling mechanism, primarily driven by the high-frequency hydrogen vibrations, leading to a predicted Tc of up to 220 K at 100 GPa. I further detail a comprehensive experimental synthesis protocol using a diamond anvil cell (DAC) with in-situ laser heating and characterization, providing a roadmap for the empirical validation of this theoretically proposed material.
Category: Condensed Matter

The Imaginary Is Real: The Geometric Foundation of Physics

Authors: Se Kyun Kwon
Comments: Pages.

The imaginary unit i has long been regarded as a formal artifact—mathematically convenient yet physically void.Here we demonstrate that i is not merely a symbol, but a real geometric entity—the generator of rotation in space, denoted by J. This recognition unifies algebra, geometry, and physics, resolving long-standing inconsistencies in quantum mechanics and revealing the geometric foundation of relativity.Crucially, J defines an experimentally accessible boundary condition—the measurable orientation of rotation or phase holonomy—that the symbolic i alone cannot, transforming the discussion from philosophical speculation to physical verification. The imaginary is not imaginary—it is the signature of geometric order itself.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Photon Revealed: A Three-Phase LC Resonant System

Authors: Faisal Saeed
Comments: 4 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This paper presents a novel, low-resource approach to the photon's dynamics using open-source computational tools. We model the photon as a three-phase resonant system, where energy circulates perpetually among orthogonal components. This explains quantization, spin, and lossless propagation with real-space mechanical principles. Computational verification confirms the predicted resonant geometry with radius r=0.202λ and inclination θ=52°, and Planck's constant emerges naturally from classical electromagnetic quantities. The derivation relies solely on real-valued quantities, challenging the notion that complex numbers are fundamental to physical reality.
Category: Classical Physics

Experimental Design for Measuring Negative Energy Density Using Optical Squeezing and Casimir-Induced Curvature with ai Feedback Control

Authors: Daniel S. Zachary
Comments: 12 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: For the last time, please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

We present a feasible optomechanical protocol for the detection of localized negative energy density arising from quantum field correlations in squeezed vacuum and Casimir configurations. The proposed setup combines a dual-cavityinterferometer with Casimir-separated mirrors and a tunable optical squeezing source,enabling modulation of vacuum fluctuations at sub-picowatt energy scales. Realtimefeedback is implemented using an adaptive artificial intelligence (AI) controllerand Kalman-filtered reference clocks, allowing dynamic optimization of signal-to-noiseratios (SNR) in curvature-sensitive observables. Numerical simulations incorporatingrealistic optical and thermal noise predict measurable fractional clock drifts (Δτ/τ ∼10−18) and curvature pulses (δR ∼ 10−5) consistent with theoretical constraints onnegative energy densities. These results demonstrate a practical pathway towardlaboratory-scale verification of quantum energy teleportation and vacuum-energymodulation using current photonic and metrological technologies.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Energy Dissipation of Photon: an Alternative Theoretical Model of Cosmological Redshift Based on Quantum Optics

Authors: Chol Jong, Un Chol Han
Comments: 15 Pages.

We present a new approach to the quantization offree electromagnetic fields without the infinity problem. Our work shows that from the physical viewpoint, the energy of a free electromagnetic field in a finite volume should be represented necessarily by a finite series, since fields consist of a finite number of photon. From the mathematical viewpoint, it is explained that the quantization of electromagnetic field reduces the infinite Fourier series to a finite series andpreserve the relativistic invariance. It is demonstrated that the cut-off of series for the energy of photons is uniquely and objectively determined based on the assumption aboutphoton. Based on this perspective, the interaction between free electromagnetic field and matter is described in terms of an integral in a finite interval which does not comprisezero and infinity. Our methodology always gives finite results and thus does not need renormalization. Ultimately, it is demonstrated that it is possible to construct a new quantization theory of electromagnetic field without infinity and renormalization thereof.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Quanta Exchange and Unified Phenomena: From Quantum to Cosmic

Authors: Min Min Oo
Comments: 26 Pages.

This paper is a revised and extended version of the paper previously posted at https://vixra.org/abs/2511.0061 under the title "Virtual Carrier Particle Quantumnization and Unified Phenomena: From Quantum to Cosmic." This paper proposes a unified theoretical framework, referred to as the Quanta Exchange Theory (QET), intended to describe natural interactions in a consistent manner from the quantum scale to the cosmic scale. Within this framework, fundamental interactions are not treated as independent forces but are instead interpreted as arising from the mutual emission and absorption of virtual carrier particles (VCPs) exchanged between physical systems. These exchange processes are taken to represent a common mechanism for the transfer of energy and momentum. The theory introduces an Isolation Principle of Quanta, which characterizes interaction processes in terms of discrete exchange events and constrains the propagation behavior of virtual carriers. The effective velocity and exchange frequency of these carriers are modeled as functions of system acceleration and coupling parameters. In this way, interaction strength is related to both kinematic and interaction properties within a unified description. As an illustrative application, observational data from the LIGO/Virgo neutron star merger event GW170817 are used to estimate parameters associated with gravitational interaction within the proposed framework. The inferred propagation speed of the corresponding gravitational carrier particles is found to be of the order of the speed of light, within the uncertainties of the observational data and the assumptions of the model. This example demonstrates how astrophysical observations may be employed to constrain or test elements of the QET formulation. The paper further develops a potential decomposition method, in which the total interaction potential is expressed as a sum of an action potential and a perturbation potential. Based on this decomposition, unified expressions for kinetic energy and total energy of interacting systems are constructed. This formalism allows for the calculation of binding energies in atomic-scale systems. The resulting expressions are shown to reproduce, and in appropriate limits extend, results consistent with those obtained from the Bohr model, Dirac theory, and available experimental data. Although different interactions may involve carrier particles with distinct properties, the underlying mechanism of energy exchange through virtual carriers is treated as common to all cases within the QET framework. Consequently, the theory emphasizes shared exchange processes rather than separate force categories, providing a unified perspective on interaction phenomena. This approach offers a possible conceptual bridge between classical and quantum descriptions of physical interactions and establishes a basis for further theoretical refinement and empirical examination.
Category: Quantum Physics

Towards a Solution to the Problem of Ultraviolet Divergences in Quantum Electrodynamics Part 1[:] A Modified Classical Theory

Authors: G. K. Artimovich
Comments: 25 Pages.

Modern quantum theory was born in 1925 — exactly 100 years ago — in the works of W. Heisenberg, P. Jordan, and M. Born. However, one of its main problems — the problem of so-called ultraviolet divergences — remains unsolved to this day. The purpose of this article is to develop a modified quantum theory that (at least partially) solves the problem. The article consists of three parts. The first part, presented here, outlines a modified theory of non-quantized fields. The true gauge group of electrodynamics is determined. A modified Lagrangian of electromagnetic interaction is proposed. A hypothesis regarding the nature of so-called dark energy is put forward.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Tracing the Evolution of Artificial Intelligence: a Review of Tools, Frameworks, and Technologies (1950—2025)

Authors: Gurpreet Singh, Trina Banerjee, Nishaa
Comments: 41 Pages.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has evolved remarkably over the past seven decades, transforming from simple rule-based systems into complex multimodal and generative frameworks capable of reasoning, creativity, and perception. This review traces the chronological development of AI tools, highlighting key milestones that shaped the field-from the early symbolic programs like Logic Theorist and ELIZA to the emergence of modern large-scale models such as GPT-4, Gemini, and Claude. The study explores the progression across distinct eras: the foundational period of symbolic reasoning (1940s-1970s), the rise of machine learning and statistical modeling (1980s-2000s), the deep learning revolution (2010s), and the recent explosion of generative and multimodal systems (2020-2025). Each phase reflects a major shift in how intelligence is defined, represented, and implemented-from handcrafted logic to data-driven learning and now to context-aware multimodal understanding. By reviewing over fifty significant AI tools and frameworks, this paper provides a comprehensive overview of how incremental innovations in computation, data availability, and model architecture have collectively enabled the current state of AI. The work concludes with insights on how this evolution paves the way for the next generation of agentic and real-time AI systems capable of seamless interaction across text, image, audio, and video modalities.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The Nature of Gravity and Quants

Authors: Reinhard Kronberger
Comments: 10 Pages.

In this paper i will show a extended picture of the nature of gravity.I will show that curvature of spacetime is only one side of the medal.The floating of spacetime is the other side.Furthermore i will show that quants can be described by finit group theory.
Category: Quantum Physics

Spin-Mediated Consciousness: Theory, Experimental Studies, Further Development & Related Topics

Authors: Huping Hu, Maoxin Wu
Comments: 92 Pages. There is an independent AI commentary at https://youtu.be/KpEznX8BcWM?si=ZiCKml5gHU5zaEko

We postulate that consciousness is intrinsically connected to quantum spin since the latter is the origin of quantum effects in both Bohm and Hestenes quantum formulisms and a fundamental quantum process associated with the structure of space-time. Applying these ideas to the particular structures and dynamics of the brain, we have developed a detailed model of quantum consciousness. We have also carried out experiments from the perspective of our theory to test the possibility of quantum-entangling the quantum entities inside the brain with those of an external chemical substance. We found that applying magnetic pulses to the brain when an anaesthetic was placed in between caused the brain to feel the effect of said anaesthetic as if the test subject had actually inhaled the same. We further found that drinking water exposed to magnetic pulses, laser light or microwave when an anaesthetic was placed in between also causes brain effects in various degrees. Additional experiments indicate that the said brain effect is indeed the consequence of quantum entanglement. Recently we have studied non-local effects in simple physics systems. We have found that the pH value, temperature and gravity of a liquid in the detecting reservoirs can be non-locally affected through manipulating another liquid in a remote reservoir quantum-entangled with the former. In particular, the pH value changes in the same direction as that being manipulated; the temperature can change against that of local environment; and the gravity can change against local gravity. We suggest that they are mediated by quantum entanglement between nuclear and/or electron spins in treated liquid and discuss the profound implications of these results. This paper now also includes materials on further development of the theory and related topics.

(Note: This preprint is a repost of arXiv:quant-ph/0208068v5 posted in 2007 at https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0208068)
Category: Quantum Physics

Analytical Solutions for the Many-Body Problem

Authors: Jinyong Liu
Comments: 12 Pages.

This work is a theoretical breakthrough in the study of the many-body problem. Breaking the long-standing myth that the many-body problem cannot be solved analytically, the analytic solutions of the orbit equation, periodic formula, and the motion equation of the many-body problem are obtained skillfully herein. Furthermore, this study offers a rigorous mathematical proof of the coplanarity and common direction of celestial bodies within such systems. The conclusions are mathematically accurate and complete, potentially marking a culmination of over 300 years of inquiry since Newton first posed the problem. From a physics perspective, this study provides a theoretical basis for the stable operation of celestial systems that is fully aligned with astronomical observation across large and small galactic structures. Notably, the discovery that the orbital period of celestial bodies is related to their own mass is of great significance for studying the formation and evolution of galaxies and planetary systems.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Central Gravity Theory

Authors: Jinyong Liu
Comments: 12 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

This study analyzes the application limitations of Newton’s law of gravitational force in the many-body problem and reveals the fundamental problems with the application of Newton’s gravitational formula in the current central configuration theory widely used in celestial mechanics. A new method suitable for the synthesis of gravitational vectors in many-body systems is proposed, and a new central gravity theory system is constructed accordingly. The proposed theory provides a concise framework for the dynamic modeling and analysis of complex celestial systems. Based on the many-body mechanical equation established by the central gravity formula, the analytical solution of the many-body problem was successfully solved, and an important theoretical breakthrough in this field was achieved in the field. It has been more than 300 years since Newton proposed the three-body and many-body problems. The central gravitational formula has undergone rigorous mathematical derivation and logical verification, and this formula now has theorem properties, marking the substantial progress of celestial mechanics. The theory of central gravity is expected to have a profound impact on the theoretical development of astrophysics.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Our Real Universe is Macroscopically 4D[:] Hints Come from Every Directions & Show that it Had to be so

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 59 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/.

In the multi-fold theory, spacetime results from 2D processes at very small spatial scales then growing to 4D at larger spatial scales, where we naturally recovered a 4D macroscopic, and at large enough microscopic scales. So far, we invoked stability of GR reconstruction to justify 4D. In a recent paper, we argued that we have almost all the elements for a theory of everything, based on the multi-fold least action principle and multi-fold space time matter induction and scattering. There, we essentially assumed 4D at large enough scales, rather than deriving it. This paper organizes past considerations before expanding and adding to them. The analysis is based both on conventional, and on multi-fold considerations. The conclusions are that the spacetime is 4D at large enough microscopic, and at macroscopic, scales, and only with 2D and 3D behaviors at the smallest spatial scales. At 4D, it can be continuous and equipped with notions of Hamiltonians, volume, areas or dot products / metrics / distances. It is not (asymptotic) AdS, and it has only one time dimensions.This paper provides a rigorous proof of why multi-fold spacetime reconstruction by random walk is 4D, and only 4D at large enough scales, and why (multi-fold) dark energy effects do not grow additional dimensions. Relying on random walks, and quantum cellular automata based on them, to model QFTs, we predict challenges in formulating QFTs at spacetime dimensions of 5 and above, except maybe for some CFTs, or when built using the random walks of extended objects like strings or branes in their AdS spacetime. This analysis extends to the QFT world. The case of dS universe is discussed.Our analysis of Kaluza Klein (KK) dimensions leads us to propose that the Higgs presence in the multi-fold is also understandable as related to Higgs as dilaton in KK, and in the double copy between gravity and gauge fields..We also explain why, on the other hand, AdS could be generated via the random walks of strings or extended objects, or non-conservative random walks, up to way higher dimensions, where one can still encounter (unphysical) supersymmetric or conformant fields. It infers why that story stops at 10D/11D, and fields misbehave at 26D for bosonic strings.The paper includes some analyses of QCD and Electroweak interactions at spatial scales where spacetime appears 2D and 3D, and additional considerations on the mass gap in different dimensions.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Relativistic Schrodinger Equation with a Scalar Potential

Authors: Jouni Puuronen
Comments: 35 Pages.

We discover that it is possible to write a Schrodinger equation for a relativistic point particle experiencing a scalar potential, and that if the potential is weak, the equation can be approximated with a series. We find a paradox that according to the equation the effect from the potential is non-local.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Power Theorem: Sum of Consecutive Powers as Perfect Squares

Authors: Manikandan Karunanidhi
Comments: 4 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite listed scientific reference and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

This work introduces a new family of natural numbers for which the sum of two successive powers, beginning with an even exponent, results in a perfect square. The identity is derived from the condition where the base plus one equals a perfect square. A formal proof is presented, along with a recurrence relation and supporting computational evidence in tabular form. This study contributes to the field of number theory by highlighting an unexpected relationship between exponential expressions and perfect squares.
Category: Number Theory

A Theory of Gravito-Electromagnetism- Extending Newtonian Gravitation with a Maxwellian Framework

Authors: Josef Graf
Comments: 22 Pages. In German

The profound mathematical analogy between Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravitation hints at a deeper theoretical correspondence. This article develops a system of equations for gravitation that mirrors the structure of Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism. This Gravito-Electromagnetic (GEM) formalism introduces physical entities such as the gravitomagnetic field, offering a unified framework with the potential to explain diverse phenomena. As a key application, the model provides a compelling explanation for the stability and equatorial alignment of planetary rings, as observed around Saturn and Uranus.
Category: Classical Physics

Event-Driven Simulation of Frustrated Interference with a Local Model.

Authors: Pierre Leroy
Comments: 7 pages + source code

The paper presents a local event-driven simulation method of an interference experiment that generates a violation of Bell's inequality while demonstrating the absence of quantum entanglement. It describes a mechanism based on the assumption of non-interacting states of light (or 'dark states') and the modulation of these states by interference when photon wave packets overlap. The simulation shows that this mechanism can produce non-classical visibility, cosine coincidences, and a CHSH violation consistent with experimental results.
Category: Quantum Physics

A Geometric Framework of Complementary Projections in Physics

Authors: Mikheili Mindiashvili
Comments: 18 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The purpose of this study is to show that many fundamental equations of physics can be traced back to a common geometric principle rooted in the Pythagorean theorem and the Archimedean tradition. The φ-parameterization acts as a bridge between classical, relativistic, and quantum physics, while also extending naturally to cosmological applications. The proposed framework does not contradict established physics nor introduce new postulates; rather, it provides a visual, unifying, and numerically stable representation of physical laws. In addition to its geometric clarity, the φ-formalism possesses an important computational advantage — numerical stability.
Category: Classical Physics

Non-Best Bounds for Schur Numbers Enjoying Simple Proofs

Authors: Warren D. Smith
Comments: 4 Pages.

The K^th "Schur number" S(K) is the least positive integer N such that for every coloring of the integers {1,2,3,...,N} with K colors, an equation a+b=c exists with 1≤a≤b≤c≤N with a,b,c all having the same color. Equivalently it is the greatest possible N so that a (K-1)-coloring of {1,2,3,...,N-1} exists avoiding monochromatic a+b=c. [The latter formulation has the advantage of telling us that S(0)=1.] We give very simple proofs that G^K≤S(K)≤⌈K!(e-1/24)⌉ where e≈2.71828 for various growth-factors G=3/2, G=2, and (for k≥5) G=161^1/5=2.76290... These Gs are not the best known, but my proofs are very simple. We speculate that S(K) grows superexponentially, and (if that is true) explain how a computer could prove arbitrarily large Gs or (if it is not true) prove a G arbitrarily near to maximum possible, after enough work. I have not been able to prove superexponentiality, but the final paragraph explains a strategy that might be able to.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

Higgs Mechanism from Primordial Dimensional Fluctuations

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 30 Pages.

According to [1-3], there are compelling reasons for connecting the continuous and evolving dimensionality of spacetime above the Standard Model (SM) scale to the onset of complex dynamics in the deep ultraviolet sector of field theory. A key observation inspired by this viewpoint is that dimensional fluctuations unfolding in far-from-equilibrium conditions lead to the complex Ginzburg-Landau equation (CGLE), a universal model of nonlinear phenomena. Framed as sequel to [4-5], this work advances a novel interpretation of the Higgs mechanism as emerging manifestation of CGLE. Our interpretation focuses on the reduction of CGLE to the behavior of an overdamped scalar field and the formation of supercritical Hopf bifurcations. We find that, in this classical picture, Hopf bifurcations provide an analog description of the Higgs condensate and the standard mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking. Built entirely outside Lagrangian field theory, our approach suggests unconventional explanations of the SM structure and the emergence of broken discrete symmetries in electroweak interactions.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Prerequisites for Fuzzy Inference on Raw Text Using Semantic Reasoner

Authors: Olegs Verhodubs
Comments: 8 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Non-academic content blocked)

There are a lot of knowledge in the Web, but there is no technological way to extract them. The bulk of knowledge is embedded in texts, and machine text processing is so inefficient that it is necessary to use Semantic Web technologies [1]. Working with ontologies (part of the Semantic Web) is convenient, but the process of creating ontologies is still more of a manual work than an automatic process. This paper proposes to generate IF..THEN rules from raw texts (from sentences) in the Web, and then perform logical inference based on these rules. Moreover, semantic processing is proposed to be applied to the IF part and the THEN part, and not to the entire raw text, generating an ontology from it. This method of generating rules and logical inference is being implemented in the Keyword Search Engine Enriched by Expert System Features [2], which will allow us to obtain expert assessments from many useful texts in the Web.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

How AI Fails: An Interactive Pedagogical Tool for Demonstrating Dialectal Bias in Automated Toxicity Models

Authors: Subhojit Ghimire
Comments: 9 Pages.

Now that AI-driven moderation has become pervasive in everyday life, we often hear claims that "the AI is biased". While this is often said jokingly, the light-hearted remark reflects a deeper concern. How can we be certain that an online post flagged as "inappropriate" was not simply the victim of a biased algorithm? This paper investigates this problem using a dual approach. First, I conduct a quantitative benchmark of a widely used toxicity model (unitary/toxic-bert) to measure performance disparity between text in African-American English (AAE) and Standard American English (SAE). The benchmark reveals a clear, systematic bias: on average, the model scores AAE text as 1.8 times more toxic and 8.8 times higher for "identity hate". Second, I introduce an interactive pedagogical tool that makes these abstract biases tangible. The tool’s core mechanic, a user-controlled "sensitivity thresh-old," demonstrates that the biased score itself is not the only harm; instead, the more-concerning harm is the human-set, seemingly neutral policy that ultimately operationalises discrimination. This work provides both statistical evidence of disparate impact and a public-facing tool de-signed to foster critical AI literacy.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Stability of Globular Clusters

Authors: Paul R. Gerber
Comments: 3 pages

It is shown that an isolated star cluster is a stable configuration. Separation of a single star from all the others would cost an amount of energy, that grows with the logarithm of its distance from the remaining rest. This is in contrast to the general opinion that such a cluster would eventually decay into small units. However, this conventional view is hardly ever mentioned, considering the fact that clusters have been found that are older than the (awkwardly supposed) age of the universe.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Clean 2D Floquet Logical Qubit from a Purely Imaginary Phase Drive

Authors: Cinque McFarlane - Blake
Comments: IEEE QCNC2026 Camera Ready (https://www.ieee-qcnc.org/2026/accepted-papers.php), 6 Pages. Zenodo DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15108309 (full source code, Qiskit circuits)

I present a disorder-free, two-dimensional Floquet stabilization mechanism that maintains a clean periodic orbit for more than 5000 cycles on a $30times30$ square lattice. The drive consists of a global transverse field and a purely imaginary nearest-neighbor interaction with a slow spiral phase profile of maximum amplitude $pi/512$. Mean-field product-state simulations (size $1800$, fourth-order Runge--Kutta, 200 steps per period) show that this imaginary phase twist passively suppresses Floquet heating for thousands of periods without disorder, feedback, or long-range couplings. A hardware test on a $3times3$ patch of an IBM superconducting device (50 periods, approximately $10^6$ physical gates) produced no detectable subharmonic response, consistent with the expected sensitivity of the mechanism to global coherence and the destructive effect of individual addressing. To verify that the stabilized orbit encodes an effective logical manifold, I applied a global logical-$X$ operation across three qualitatively distinct initial states (polarized, N'eel, and random). In all cases the sign of the logical magnetization $Z_L$ inverts while the magnitude remains small ($sim 10^{-3}$), indicating that the operation acts as a symmetry of the Floquet orbit rather than a state-preparation artifact. The resulting drive maps directly to a single global radio-frequency field plus a static magnetic-field gradient on current two-dimensional trapped-ion platforms, suggesting a route toward robust low-frequency logical qubits and potential applications in isotope- or chirality-selective sensing.
Category: Quantum Physics

Some Abc-Properties of the Generalized Pell’s Equations X^2 Dy^2 = +/-N and X^2 Dy^2 = N2

Authors: J. Kuzmanis
Comments: 23 Pages.

Primary abc-triples, formed by the set of roots for the generalized Pell’s equations x^2 -Dy^2 = +/-N (with N [larger than] 2), induce formation of secondary abc-triples in the set of roots for equations x^2 - Dy^2 = N^2.
Category: Number Theory

Higher-Degree Generalizations of the Method of Moving Points

Authors: Alex Wang
Comments: 14 Pages.

This report will be presenting a generalization to a previous method to solveEuclidean geometry problems which are parameterizable in one variable, known asthe Method of Moving Points". This method sometimes faces limitations, oftenunable to directly intersect or parameterize curves with degrees greater than onewithout tailored geometric analysis. We generalize this method through applying theVeronese map to be able to parameterize higher-degree moving curves, and extendthe notion of multiplicity of point-point concurrence to the degree of vanishing of adeterminant, to find effective bounds on the degree of higher-degree moving curves.Additionally, through an application of polynomial resultants, we bound the degreeof the locus of intersections of higher-degree moving curves. Finally, we present acollection of examples and applications of this theory to solving olympiad geometry problems involving moving circles and factoring their resultant bounds.
Category: Geometry

Toward Sustainable and Trustworthy Federated Learning A Review of Energy Efficiency, Blockchain, and Verifiability

Authors: Rana Shivang Singh
Comments: 10 Pages.

Federated Learning (FL) is an emerging method to train machine learning models without the data getting centralized. By not centralizing the data, FL is compatible with security-conscious sectors like healthcare, finance, and IoT. However, despite this benefit, FL currently encounters three key issues hindering mainstream adoption, including high energy consumption during distributed training, the requirement for trust amongst the users, and the absence of good verifiability to ensure the result is proper and not adulterated.In the past few years, researchers have attempted to solve each of these problems individually. Initiatives under Green FL work towards minimizing the carbon and energy footprint. Blockchain-enabled solutions incorporate mechanisms for trust among clients as well as incentives. Cryptographic and auditing mechanisms allow for some extent of verifiability. The majority of the above works consider the problems in isolation. What is still absent is an integrated picture that examines their interplay, trade-offs, and the potential for common frameworks.This paper surveys 45 papers from 2021 to 2025 that relate to energy awareness, blockchain incorporation, or verifiability in FL. We categorise each paper with the straightforward coding scheme (Yes, Partial, No) on the three dimensions and study overlaps. The results show blockchain as the most progressed strand, energy-efficiency dealt with moderately, while verifiability remains the least studied. The paper ends with gaps, open issues, and future work towards sustainable and trustworthy FL.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Structures of Finite and Infinite Types of Non-Compact Riemann Surfaces Via Fundamental Groups

Authors: Absos Ali Shaikh, Uddhab Roy
Comments: 36 Pages.

The purpose of this article is to introduce the notion of constructing any arbitrary finite and infinite types of non-compact hyperbolic Riemann surfaces via (non-abelian) fundamental groups equipped with various types of classical Schottky structures, with limit sets as uncountable sets (but not necessarily Cantor sets), emphasising the cases in which the surfaces are of infinite hyperbolic areas. In particular, in this paper, the primary goal is to fabricate three different types of caconical non-compact infinite area Fuchsian polygons in the hyperbolic plane endowed with various kinds of classical Schottky structures. After that, we have initiated a structure of an arbitrary finite type non-compact hyperbolic Riemann surface with genus, conformal holes, cusps, and funnel ends by using the canonical Fuchsian Schottky polygons. Furthermore, in this manuscript, we have proposed the ideas of infinite types conformally compact and semi-conformally compact hyperbolic Riemann surfaces. Indeed, we have introduced four new and interesting types of infinite type hyperbolic Riemann surfaces (we call generalized flute surfaces) that are constructed from infinite sequences of infinite area hyperbolic pair of pants, each glued to the next along a common geodesic boundary with certain strategies.
Category: Geometry

Microwave-Catalyzed Mechanism of Enzymes [?]

Authors: Xianzhong Cheng
Comments: 3 Pages.

Traditionally, the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis has often been explained by the "induced fit" model, but this model struggles to fully account for its exponential catalytic efficiency. This paper proposes a new mechanism: proteases can be viewed as a kind of molecular nuclear magnetic resonance system, where Hu207a or metal ions reversibly coordinate with amino groups, generating an induced electric field, which in turn triggers the formation of an alternating electromagnetic field in the α-helix structure and interacts with the static magnetic field produced by the β-sheet structure. At specific carboxyl groups (with bond characteristics), nuclear magnetic resonance of hydrogen atoms or electrons is excited, thereby generating microwave radiation locally. This microwave promotes the dissociation of substrates into highly reactive free radicals or ions, greatly accelerating the reaction rate. This paper combines quantum tunneling effects with microwave catalysis theory to provide a new physical explanation for the high efficiency of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Category: Physics of Biology

A Method for Generating Prime Numbers (A Constructive Approach)

Authors: Felipe Wescoup
Comments: 9 Pages.

This paper presents a method for generating lists of prime numbers. The algorithm presentedcalculates the set of all composite (non-prime) numbers up to a given limit and the set of primes is subsequently defined as its complement. The method is demonstrated through a JavaScript implementation, which is evolved over four iterative levels increasing optimization. Level 1 presents the core mathematical concept. Levels 2 and 3 include logical assumptions thatimprove efficiency. Level 4 is capable of calculating all primes up to 20 million in seconds within a standard web browser. This paper is supplemented by a public GitHub repository containing the complete operational code.
Category: Number Theory

Substrate-mediated Coherence in Kagome Metals

Authors: Paul Hasselbring
Comments: 17 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The recent observation of long-range electronic coherence in the kagome metal CsVu2083Sbu2085 below T' ≈ 30 K [Guo et al., Nature 647, 68-73 (2025)] presents a fundamental challenge to conventional condensed matter theory: how can coherent charge transport emerge over micron-scale distances in a material with sub-micron mean free paths, absent superconductivity? Here we demonstrate that WaveCode substrate theory—a geometric framework treating matter as interference patterns in a universal substrate—quantitatively explains this phenomenon without free parameters. Using Hasselbring Equations XVII (shell interference coupling) and LXIII (phase-lock coherence), we achieve R² = 0.989 agreement with experimental temperature-dependent oscillation amplitudes and correctly predict the coherence onset temperature Tcrit = 25.6 ± 1.3 K, consistent with experimental T' = 30 K. Our model unifies seven independent experimental probes (STM, μSR, NMR, transport, Nernst effect) through a single mechanism: geometric frustration in the kagome lattice enhances substrate-mediated phase-locking, enabling macroscopic coherence. We extend predictions to related kagome metals KVu2083Sbu2085 and RbVu2083Sbu2085, providing testable forecasts for their coherence behavior. This work establishes geometry as a fundamental design principle for engineering quantum coherence in correlated materials.
Category: Condensed Matter

On a Modification of the Quantum Eraser Experiment, the Results of Which May Disprove the Absoluteness of Measurement in Quantum Mechanics.

Authors: R. K. Salimov
Comments: 5 Pages.

This paper examines the hypothesis that the quantum "measurement" of polarizations in a quantum eraser experiment occurs at the moment the entangled pair is created. According to this hypothesis, introducing a polarizer into the path of one photon at a later time will not affect the polarization of the second photon. The consequences of this hypothesis differ from those of quantum mechanics, where the key element is the measurement process that occurs when a photon passes through a polarizer. Such "absurd" assumptions are typically dismissed outright as violations of Special Relativity (SR), although experiments on nonlocality may be precisely the domain where SR violations occur. To test this hypothesis, a modified quantum eraser experiment is proposed. If the hypothesis is correct, the experimental results will differ from the predictions of quantum mechanics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Energy Conservation in General Relativity

Authors: Stefan Bernhard Ruester, Antonino Del Popolo
Comments: 10 Pages. 1 figure, 1 table, Parana J. Sci. Educ., v.11, n.6, (1-10), December 1, 2025

This article shows that the vanishing covariant divergence of the energy-momentum tensor of the matter is a conservation law. Furthermore, it is explained why energy-momentum pseudotensors of the gravitational field cannot represent its energy density, but this is described up to a factor by the Einstein tensor. The necessarily existing conservation law of total energy, momentum, and stress in general relativity is derived, thereby explaining the phenomena of dark energy and dark matter and solving the cosmological constant problem and the cuspy halo problem. In Newton's theory of gravity, it is the modified Poisson equation that fulfills the requirement of conservation of total energy. Using a model that solves the modified Poisson equation, it turns out that dark matter in modified Newtonian cosmology is nothing other than a central point-like mass, probably a supermassive primordial black hole, thus refuting the cosmological principle and explaining both the Hubble and S_8 tensions. A simple but fairly accurate model is presented that solves the modified Poisson equation to fit the calculated rotation curves to the observed speeds in spiral galaxies, which consist of several components: the central black hole, the bulge, the disk, and the dark matter.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Geometric Law of Quantum Mechanics and the Imaginary Unit

Authors: Se Kyun Kwon
Comments: 5 Pages.

Mathematically, the imaginary unit i has long been regarded as an algebraic generator extending the real numbers to the complex field.Yet a century after the birth of quantum mechanics (1925—2025), the answer to its oldest question is now clear: quantum mechanics is not merely a mathematical structure—it is a physical reality, and all quantities appearing in its non-commutative relations are physical.Therefore, i is not a mere algebraic extension but the universal operator demanded by the geometric completeness of non-commutative reality between position and momentum.The imaginary unit is a physical reality.The canonical relation [x, p] = i hbar is not merely algebraic—it is a geometric law, showing that the complex structure of quantum mechanics arises inevitably from physical reality itself.It stands without contradiction, without complexity. This is nature.In the (x, p) plane, i represents a 90 degree rotation and hbar quantizes the curvature of that rotation.Complex numbers thus arise as the natural geometric language of non-commutative physics, providing a geometric resolution to the century-old question of physical completeness first raised by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen (1935).
Category: Quantum Physics

Linking Vaccine Scheduling Intensity to Autism Incidence: A Cross-national Study Bridging Public Health, Neuroscience, and Psychological Science

Authors: Mario Coccia
Comments: 26 Pages.

This study explores the association between early-life vaccine scheduling intensity and autism prevalence across 12 high-income countries, emphasizing implications for neurodevelopment and psychological well-being. Using a cross-national ecological dataset from nations with comparable healthcare systems and diagnostic standards, we examined whether the number and timing of vaccine doses administered to infants under one year correlate with standardized autism incidence rates. Descriptive statistics, partial correlations (controlling for overall vaccination coverage), and multivariate regression models were applied. Countries with higher autism prevalence (USA, Canada, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Singapore) averaged 15 vaccine types and 20 doses for infants ≤1 year, whereas lower-prevalence nations (Norway, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Sweden, UK) averaged 8 vaccines and 9 doses. Strong positive associations emerged between autism prevalence and vaccine types (r = 0.87, p < 0.001) and doses (r = 0.79, p < 0.01). Regression analysis indicated that a 1% increase in vaccine types corresponded to a 0.47% rise in autism prevalence (p = 0.001), explaining 81% of variance. While causality cannot be inferred, these findings highlight patterns warranting further investigation into neurodevelopmental trajectories and psychosocial factors such as parental anxiety and trust in health systems. Gradual scheduling strategies may support optimal cognitive development while sustaining high immunization coverage.
Category: Quantitative Biology

Quantum Wave Probability Derive Thermodynamic Distribution

Authors: Xiao Lin Li
Comments: 11 Pages.

Using the concept of quantum wave probability, combined with the identity principle, we can derive the Boltzmann distribution, Fermi distribution, and Bose distribution. Different distributions correspond to different conditions. The Boltzmann condition corresponds to the Boltzmann distribution. The Fermi condition corresponds to the Fermi distribution. The Bose condition corresponds to the Bose distribution. This demonstrates that the foundation of these three statistical distributions is quantum wave probability, all originating from quantum mechanics. The Boltzmann distribution is also an independent quantum distribution and is not simply a sparse limit of the Fermi or Bose distributions. The essence of the Boltzmann distribution is a uniform distribution. The Fermi and Bose distributions are deviations from the uniform distribution. Particles that follow the Boltzmann distribution can be called Boltzmannons. Boltzmann entropy based on the quantum wave probability can resolve the Gibbs paradox. We need to rethink the fundamentals of statistical mechanics.
Category: Quantum Physics

Predictive Maintenance in Automotive Telematics using Machine Learning

Authors: Jay Dayal Guwalani
Comments: 15 Pages.

Predictive maintenance in automotive telematics signifies a revolutionary method for vehicle health management, using machine learning methods to foresee breakdowns and enhance maintenance schedules. This research utilizes machine learning methods to ascertain the loading status of trucks—loaded or empty—exclusively using data from the vehicle's communication network, particularly from the engine module. We attained an accuracy over 85% for small hauls (0.5 to 5 km) and approximately 95% for long hauls (5 to 500 km). This method optimizes fleet management by minimizing communication between managers and drivers, while also significantly contributing to research on fuel consumption reduction and advanced fault diagnostics. The findings demonstrate that machine learning-based predictive maintenance decreases unplanned downtime and maintenance expenses while also improving vehicle safety and durability. This paper provides a thorough examination of the efficacy of machine learning models in predictive maintenance, delineates the challenges associated with data privacy, computational efficiency, and integration with current automotive systems, and explores future avenues for creating more resilient and scalable predictive maintenance frameworks in the automotive sector.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Black Hole Magnet Theory by Wilmar Marin Moreno

Authors: Wilmar Marin Moreno
Comments: 3 Pages. In Spanish (Note by ai.viXra.org Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

Black holes are permanent magnetic dipoles with a double charge: positive pole, negative pole. Their field never reaches zero; it extends in a gradient, connecting the entire cosmos like a live wire. When one absorbs mass, it expels it through the opposite pole, generating electromagnetic repulsion that pushes the next black hole. This push is not the Big Bang; it is expansion. Equation: ∇ × B = μu2080 εu2080 v × B. The universe did not begin: it spins like an eternal solenoid. Author: Wilmar Marín Moreno, Colombian mathematician, independent researcher.

Los agujeros negros son dipolos magnéticos permanentes de doble carga: polo positivo, polo negativo. Su campo nunca se hace cero; se extiende en degradé, conecta todo el cosmos como un cable vivo. Cuando uno absorbe masa, la expulsa por el polo opuesto, genera repulsión electromagnética que empuja al siguiente agujero. Ese empuje no el Big Bang es la expansión. Ecuación: ∇ × B = μu2080 εu2080 v × B. El universo no empezó: gira como solenoide eterno. Autor: Wilmar Marín Moreno, matemático colombiano, investigador independiente. Palabras clave: imanes cósmicos, expansión magnética, cero vacío.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Relativistic Propulsion by Electromagnetic Induction of Black Hole

Authors: Wilmar Marin Moreno
Comments: 8 Pages. In Spanish (Note by ai.viXra.org Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

I propose a propulsion system for spacecraft that extracts rotational energy from Kerr black holes by induction in their ergosphere magnetosphere, without penetrating the event horizon. Eight magnetically confined beams of charged plasma are anchored to the far B field (r > 100 r_s), inducing torque via frame-dragging. Key equation: F = q (v × B) + τ = r × (Φ I), where Φ = B · A generates Lorentz thrust with no ejected mass. The spacecraft accelerates at ~0.3c per hop, dilating proper time. Inspired by Blandford-Znajek, but scaled for interstellar travel.

Propongo un sistema de propulsión para naves espaciales que extrae energía rotacional de agujeros negros Kerr mediante inducción en su magnetosfera ergósfera, sin penetrar el horizonte. Ocho haces de plasma cargado, confinados magnéticamente, se anclan al campo B lejano (r > 100 r_s), induciendo torque vía frame-dragging. Ecuación clave: F = q (v × B) + τ = r × (Φ I), donde Φ = B · A genera empuje Lorentz sin masa expulsada. La nave acelera a ~0.3c por salto, dilatando tiempo propio. Inspirado en Blandford-Znajek, pero escalado para viajes interestelares.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Prime Number Distribution as an Iterative Spiral

Authors: Colm Gallagher
Comments: 11 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please cite listed scientific references and submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

A deterministic arithmetic reformulation of the mod 6 lattice revealing geometric symmetry in the distribution of primes. Rotational symmetry when applied to these residuals visits all of the non-prime numbers stepwise, which we refer to as "hops", that generates a deterministic arithmetic framework that reproduces the sequence of primes and their gaps. We present a framework for understanding the distribution of primes using modular arithmetic and iterative hop sequences. Visual patterns such as the Ulam spiral are shownto arise naturally from rotational symmetries within this framework. We provide both anintuitive explanation and a formal arithmetic treatment that reproduces the sequence ofprimes and their gaps. As first noted by Ulam and popularized by Gardner, the arrangement of integersin a spiral lattice reveals that prime numbers tend to cluster along diagonal lines. However,this observation alone does not explain the *mechanism* of the clustering. The hop-based interpretation offers a natural explanation: primes occupy loci defined by arithmetic propagation rather than arbitrary geometric coincidence.
Category: Number Theory

An Arithmetic Reformulation of the 3x + 1 Problem Using Signed Jacobsthal Numbers

Authors: Satya Das
Comments: 22 Pages. The content is changed as part of an improvement

We establish a structural correspondence between the Collatz map and the signedJacobsthal numbers, providing an arithmetic reformulation of the 3x + 1 problem. Byrepresenting Collatz iterations through powers of signed Jacobsthal numbers, we derivenecessary and sucient conditions for the existence of cycles and for the validity ofthe coecient stopping time conjecture. This formulation translates the combinatorialdynamics of the Collatz map into explicit number-theoretic identities, revealing anunderlying algebraic framework that connects iteration, recurrence, and integrality.The results suggest a pathway toward analyzing the conj
Category: Number Theory

What is G? a Predictive Toy Model of Newtonian Gravity in the Spirit of Principia Mathematica

Authors: Antonio Francino, Gabriel Simón, Josep M. Francino
Comments: 5 Pages.

Based on a toy model that postulates space as a dynamic 3-D grid of nodes and stems arranged as a repeating pattern of a unit cell of unknown geometry, an equivalence and interchangeability of space and mass is proposed, the latter being a collapsed state of the former. Masses would originate from the collapse of a certain amount of unit cells proportional to the mass. From the model and under spherical symmetry, Newtons’ Law is reproduced and the value of G is shown to be independently derivable from a Cavendish experiment. The locally collapsed grid would then generate a dynamical system of force lines, akin to Faraday’s lines in electromagnetism, which surface density decays as 1/r² and determines the force on the test mass. A correction is added to the classical formulation for the case of non-baryonic gravity and gravity of unknown origin that reduces to the standard when there is none. Finally, an argument is made about the range of the gravitational force, which in this model would be extremely large but finite.
Category: Classical Physics

The Dark Sides of Modern Science: Credit Attribution, Citation and Impact

Authors: Taha Sochi
Comments: 47 Pages.

This is the sixth article in our series "The Dark Sides of Modern Science" and is about the credit attribution, citation and impact in the scientific circles and literature (where science means knowledge in general). The remarks that we stated in the Introduction of the first article of this series (i.e. "Knowledge Production and Authoring") generally apply to this article and hence we do not need to repeat.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

On the Internal Structure of Black Holes

Authors: Farid Abrari
Comments: 21 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The combined theory of Special Relativity and Quantum Mechanics (c-SRQM) suggests the existence of a Primordial Stem Particle (PSP) whose rest mass m_bar is thought to be the cutoff limit for massless particles. At its condensed state of various quantum energy levels, the PSP is thought to be the sole constituent of black holes singularity, and in its free state, the PSP is thought to permeate the entire universe as a relic left from the Big Bang. The c-SRQM theory also suggests a physical limit a_u=c^2/A for acceleration, and with that, arrives at the concept of the Unit Black Hole (UBH) with mass M_1=A c^2/(4G) whose gravitational pull at the event horizon of diameter A is equal to a_u. The PSP constituents of a stand-alone UBH have the spatial uncertainty delta_x=A, thereby confining the particles to the very surface of the UBH event horizon. For larger black holes with index b>1 and mass M_b > M_1, a layered internal structure emerges comprising of b concentric spherical shells. The quantum index of constituents of each shell matches their shell number: the innermost shell 1, ie. UBH, is occupied by the PSPs at quantum energy level n=1, the following shell 2 is occupied by the PSPs at quantum energy level n=2, and so on until the outermost shell b which is occupied by the PSPs at quantum energy level n=b. These concentric spherical shells create the core or the physical singularity of black holes, a structure somewhat similar to but far simpler than the electron shells in the atomic structure of ordinary matter. A set of LIGO-Virgo Gravitational Wave data is used to constrain the UBH mass median to 7.402E23 (kg) and its core diameter to 2.197 (mm). The resulting PSP mass is constrained to a median of 1.006E-39 (kg).
Category: Condensed Matter

Giving Quantum Mechanics Wings of 'force'

Authors: Runsheng Tu
Comments: 16 Pages.

There have been no reports on the operators of force and the equations of wave mechanics containing force, as well as the representation of Newton's second law and the law of conservation of momentum using wave mechanics methods. It is necessary to explore the method of describing the action of force using wave mechanics. By carefully analyzing the composition, structure, and function of the Schrödinger equation (SC), it was found that it is a product of the organic combination of classical mechanical laws and wave functions. Starting from F=ma, SC can be derived. F=ma can be precipitated from SC. The operators for physical quantities, such as mass, force, potential energy, etc., can be derived from SC. The wave equation with force has also been established. The law of conservation of momentum, Newton's second law, and Viry's theorem can also be expressed by the wave equation. According to SC, it can also be demonstrated the quantitative relationship between the wave and particle properties of moving particles. Through the experiment of "magnetic field and light interfering with electron diffraction", it can also be observed that moving particles undergo diffraction while complying with Newton's second law. The conclusion is that "quantum" and "classical" can be combined: quantum mechanics allows classical mechanics to be compatible with itself and can describe forces in the microscopic world.
Category: Quantum Physics

Binary Neural Networks Playing Atari Space Invaders (2) Trained by Genetic Algorithm

Authors: Hidehiko Okada
Comments: 8 Pages.

This study investigates the performance of Genetic Algorithm for optimizing binary neural network controllers in the Atari Space Invaders task, extending prior work that applied Evolution Strategy to the same optimization problem. The network topology and the activation function are kept consistent with the earlier study to enable direct comparison between GA and ES. Two GA configurations were utilized while varying the number of hidden units and the bit precision of connection weights. Experimental results revealed that, for the number of hidden units of 1, 2, 4, and 8, the game scores achieved by 1-bit networks were not significantly lower than those of 64-bit networks, consistent with prior ES-based findings. Moreover, even a single hidden unit exhibited competitive performance, unlike in the ES case where performance degraded markedly. GA outperformed ES under the configuration emphasizing the number of generations, while ES performed better under the configuration emphasizing population size; the former difference was statistically significant (p < .01). These findings suggest that GA provides a viable alternative to ES for training binary neural network controllers in reinforcement learning tasks.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

An Omitted Term in the Lorentz Force Formula

Authors: Jan Sandtner
Comments: 2 Pages. (Note by ai.viXra.org Admin: Please cite listed scientific references)

If the well-known Lorentz force formula is applied for nonstationary cases, then an additional term containing changing electric field must be adjoined. This term has dimension of force too. When in space, where the field is located, pure vacuum is present, then a rightful question arises, where does this force apply. Some considerations about electromagnetic momentum and compensating mechanical momentum are mentioned.
Category: Classical Physics

Letter: the Germ-Enfolded Metric of Big Bang in Thoms Catastrophic Theory as a FRW Description

Authors: Holger Döring
Comments: 3 Pages.

The Big Bang of universe can described over the enfolding of a germ of an elliptic umbilic point in Thoms catrastrophic theory. The controlling variables of this state can be seen as the important metric parameters of Einstein field-equation of GRT. This metric term can be described in the following as a FRW-description.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

The Logical Operation Rules for a Sequence

Authors: WenBin Hu
Comments: 3 Pages. (Note by ai.viXra.org Admin: Please cite and list scientific references)

This paper proposes a set of logical operation rules for sequences and formulates a generation rule for difference-free sequences that satisfy the operations. The "difference-free sequence" in this paper refers to a sequence where the difference between any two arbitrary numbers within the sequence is not equal to any number in other sequences.Common generation rules for difference-free sequences include:The new term of the sequence satisfies a_(n+1)>2a_nComputer-generated sequences based on the greedy algorithm
Category: Number Theory

Neutrinos and Gravitational Polarisations is there a Link?

Authors: Thierry L. A. Periat
Comments: 30 Pages.

This document reworks and deepens a twenty-two-year-old intuition betting that the neutrinos can be indirectly related to gravitational polarisations. Respecting the usual practice, this idea is tested with the variations of the Newtonian fields. The quadrupolar tensor [Q] enters the discussion in two different ways: (i) through the calculation of its Jacobian matrix and (ii) in studying the Thirring-Lense effect far from a massive body in rotation. This fact suggests the existence of a link between this Jacobian and the rotations in general. The whirl tensor (syn.: rotational) acting on a generic cross product g is then interpreted as a deformation acting on this classical cross product. This approach allows identifying the Jacobian matrix with the kern of decompositions for rotr g. It finally extrapolates this idea to any acceleration-field in examining the conditions allowing an identification between any Jacobian matrix and ordinary Perian matrices. In following this track, some progresses on the road joining the acceleration-fields and the subatomic world are realized.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Keystroke Analysis for User Authentication

Authors: Khushi Kher
Comments: 7 Pages.

This report offers an examination ofkeystroke analysis as a method for authenticating users, employing machine learning techniques.The report encompasses a comprehensive exploration of the theoretical underpinnings, and con-temporary research in keystroke dynamics. Furthermore, it provides insights into the practicalimplementation of keystroke analysis for user authentication, elucidating the operational aspectsand technical intricacies involved. Additionally, the report critically evaluates the limitations en-countered within this authentication method, providing a detailed analysis of the challenges faced. The report concludes by outlining the potential of keystroke analysis in enhancing security measures and augmenting user experience. Overall, this report aims to contribute to thediscourse on keystroke dynamics, shedding light on both its advancements and limitations whileenvisioning its future prospects in the realm of user authentication.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Local Control of Gravity Using a Parallel Plate Capacitor, Subjected to Extra Low Frequency Voltages

Authors: Fran De Aquino
Comments: 5 Pages.

Here, we show an experiment in order to measure the gravity acceleration above of one side of the dielectric of a Parallel Plate Capacitor when the opposite side of the dielectric is facing to Earth surface, and the capacitor is subjected to a sinusoidal voltage with Extremely Low Frequency (ELF). The results here obtained shows that, in these circumstances, the gravity acceleration above of the dielectric is strongly modified.
Category: Classical Physics

Black Holes and Gravitational Waves in Light of the New Physical Paradigm

Authors: Yefim Bakman
Comments: 12 Pages.

The theory of general relativity (GR) has been very successful in predicting many cosmic phenomena. However, the GR theory was derived from mathematical considerations; thus, the limitations under which this theory is valid are unknown. In particular, in the case of black holes, the solution to Einstein's equations leads to a singularity, which is physically impossible. Here, we consider the new physical paradigm, based on a physical concept, that solves the problem of the black hole singularity and 22 other unsolved problems in physics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Extratropical Cyclones in British Overseas Territory in the South Atlantic

Authors: Ricardo Gobato, Abhijit Mitra, Sufia Zaman, Ibtihal Kadhim Kareem Dosh
Comments: 6 Pages.

The work is based on the analysis of an extratropical cyclone that passed west of the South Georgia Islands in late winter 2025. This extratropical cyclone (here in after referred to as Georgia) and others that commonly pass through the South Atlantic Ocean have a strong influence on the region’s climate, with windsabove 80 km/h. The Georgia cyclone that formed south southeast, of South Georgia Island. It traveled 74 km in 7.5h towards the north-northwest, when it was 320 km of core from South Georgia Island. It moved at an average speed of 9.81 km/h (6.1 mi/h). The highlighted turbulent cyclonic vortex exhibits two Cote’s curves.The shape of Georgia and other cyclones that hit this region has already been well characterized, having the shape of a Cote’s spiral curve, also similar to spiral galaxie, Gobato et al. (2020-24) such as Messier 77 and the Great Dark Spot (GDS) of Neptune.
Category: Climate Research

On the Structure of Floating-Point Noise in Batch-Invariant GPU Matrix Multiplication

Authors: Tadisetty Sai Yashwanth
Comments: 7 Pages.

Floating-point non-associativity makes fundamental deep learning operations, such as matrix multiplication (matmul) on GPUs, inherently non-deterministic. Despite this, the statistical structure of the resulting numerical error remains poorly understood. A common working assumption is that these errors behave as independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Gaussian noise. In this paper, we empirically test this assumption and show that it fails to describe real GPU behavior. By comparing outputs of single-input and batched matmuls, we find that while the i.i.d. modelpredicts non-zero output instability, empirical results show a 0.00% prediction flip rate. Through covariance analysis, we uncover the cause: the floating-point error is structured and highly correlated. For float16, nearly 50% of the total error variance lies in off-diagonal terms, revealing that the noise behaves as a coordinated, directional perturbation rather than random static. This result challenges theprevailing stochastic view of numerical noise and provides a principled foundation for analyzing deep learning reliability under hardware non-determinism.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Beyond Counting Sheep: Exercises for Voluntary Rapid Eyes Movements During Insomnia

Authors: Salvatore Spadaro
Comments: 3 Pages.

a cognitive-behavioural method to avoid insomnia is presented. This procedure involves exercises to generate a voluntary REM phase. This method is theoretical and has been tested only by the author. It is presented for empirical testing on a larger number of subjects.
Category: Mind Science

Debunking the Dot Product of a Magnetic Moment and a Magnetic Field

Authors: Jouni Puuronen
Comments: 8 Pages.

We attempt to calculate the exercise where we show that a dot product of a magnetic moment and a pointwise value of a magnetic field with a minus sign describes an interaction energy. The attempt is not successful due to the divergence of the relevant integrals, and we conclude that the claimed exercise result is wrong. The belief that the dot product with a minus sign would describe an interaction energy most apparently is only a myth.
Category: Classical Physics

Theory of Semi-Fuchsian Schottky Groups

Authors: Absos Ali Shaikh, Uddhab Roy
Comments: 42 Pages.

The purpose of this expository article is to introduce the notion of a new type of (classical and non-classical) Schottky structures in the discrete subgroups of the projective special linear group over the real numbers of degree $2$. In particular, in this manuscript, we have investigated the classical and non-classical structures of a kind of Schottky group (which we named as semi-Fuchsian Schottky groups) in the hyperbolic plane. In general, a Schottky group is called classical if the Schottky curves used in the Schottky construction are Euclidean circles; on the other hand, it is said to be non-classical if the defining curves are Jordan curves, except the Euclidean circles. In fact, in this article, we initiated the concept of classical semi-Fuchsian Schottky groups of rank $2$ (hence any finite rank) in the upper-half plane model. This study yields new and interesting surfaces in Riemann surface theory, specifically, various types of hyperbolic pairs of pants with infinite area (indeed, we proposed the notion of a pair of full pants) and a hyperbolic torus with one infinite end. After that, we constructed a structure of the rank $2$ semi-Fuchsian Schottky group with non-classical generating sets in the hyperbolic plane by using two suitable M"obius transformations. More precisely, in this paper, we have produced a non-trivial example of the semi-Fuchsian Schottky group of rank $2$ with non-classical generating sets within the hyperbolic plane.
Category: Algebra

The Emergence of Reality: A Path Integral Interpretation of the Many Unreal Worlds

Authors: Bhushan Poojary
Comments: 15 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Please submit article written with AI assistance to ai.viXra.org)

The standard interpretations of quantum mechanics, particularly the Copenhagen and Many-Worlds (MWI) views, fail to provide a satisfactory, physically localized mechanism for wave function collapse or the appearance of a single classical reality. This paper proposes the Emergent Universe from Many Unreal World Interpretation (MUWI), a novel framework that integrates concepts from the Feynman Path Integral Formulation (PIF), the Holographic Principle, and the concept of quantized spacetime [1,2].MUWI posits that reality emerges from a finite, pre-existent set of Unreal Spacetime Fabrics, each corresponding to a potential quantum state, or "address." We establish a formal equivalence between these unreal fabrics and the "sum over histories" in the Path Integral Formulation (PIF). The particle’s quantum state ψ is the propagator, calculated as the collective interference of all potential states (shadows) across these fabrics.The critical distinction lies in the collapse mechanism: Measurement is not a branching event, but an irreversible, informational event—an "address change"—triggered by the interaction of a true particle with a shadow. This interaction enforces a new boundary condition, instantaneously collapsing the PIF to a single history (the observed outcome) and transferring the particle's quantum information across a non-local holographic plane. This approach provides a localized, geometric mechanism for wave function collapse, resolves the paradox of retrocausality in delayed-choice experiments, and offers a fundamental link between the quantum wave and the emergent geometry of spacetime.
Category: Quantum Physics

A Primitive Notion Versus the Non-Archimedean Paradigm: Introducing Homogeneous Infinitesimals

Authors: J. P. Baugher
Comments: 19 Pages.

Infinitesimals have long been considered to be non-Archimedean, in that any number times an infinitesimal cannot equate to a large real number. In this paper I present a proof by contradiction that infinitesimals, if defined as homogeneous, can falsify this claim.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Deriving Fermi Arcs of Generic Nature Spanning Nodes Featuring Multibands, Nonlinear Dispersion, And/or Multipoles

Authors: Ipsita Mandal
Comments: 6 Pages.

Fermi arcs appear as the surface states at the boundary of a three-dimensional topological semimetal with the vacuum, reflecting the Chern number ($mathcal C$) of a nodal point in the momentum space, which represents singularities (in the form of monopoles) of the Berry curvature. They are finite arcs (rather than closed curves), attaching/reattaching with the bulk-energy states at the tangents of the projections of the Fermi surfaces of the bands meeting at the nodes. The number of Fermi arcs grazing onto the tangents of the outermost projection equals $mathcal C$, revealing the intrinsic topology of the underlying bandstructure, which can be visualised in experiments like ARPES. Here we outline a generic procedure to compute these states for generic nodal points, (1) whose degeneracy might be twofold or multifold; and (2) the associated bands might exhibit isotropic or anisotropic, linear- or nonlinear-in-momentum dispersion. This also allows us to determine whether we should get any Fermi arcs at all for $mathcal C = 0$, when the nodes host ideal dipoles.
Category: Condensed Matter

Galaxy Evolution Based on a Revised Nuclear Model: A Unified Explanation for Quasars and Superheavy Nucleosynthesis

Authors: Xianzhong Cheng
Comments: 6 Pages.

background: Mainstream astrophysics, based on traditional nuclear and nuclear force models, posits that during the late evolution of massive stars, their iron cores undergo gravitational collapse due to insufficient energy release from fusion, triggering supernova explosions and forming neutron stars or black holes. This framework struggles to explain quasars' immense and sustained energy output, multiple spectral redshifts, and fails to effectively guide stable superheavy element synthesis.

Problem: This paper challenges conventional understanding of nuclear forces and iron core behavior identifying an overlooked slow fusion pathway in stellar iron cores during late evolution stages.

Core Argument: Based on a revised nuclear structure model (where nucleons exist as "subprotons" and "subneutrons" in dynamic transformation; see preprint viXra:2412.0014 submitted on 2024-12-05), we propose that extreme gravitational pressure in ultra-massive stars drives preferential fusion of iron cores into hyperons (e.g., Σ, Ξ). These hyperons rapidly decay as intermediate products, generating high-energy γ photons and free neutrons.

Results: This process initiates cascade reactions: 1) γ photons activate outer iron cores via photonuclear reactions, synthesizing superheavy elements (atomic numbers 104—118) through neutron/proton capture; 2) forms a layered core structure (iron crystal lattice, superheavy nucleus layer, neutron layer); 3) fast neutrons from the core bombard superheavy nuclei, releasing enormous energy that melts through the iron shell. Under strong magnetic fields and rotational forces, polar jets form, ultimately dispersing the stellar envelope and evolving into observed quasars.

Conclusion: This framework naturally explains quasar energy mechanisms (non-gravitational collapse energy), primary redshift sources (close-range strong gravitational redshift), and multiple redshift phenomena. It predicts a novel, high-yield pathway for stable superheavy nucleosynthesis under high-pressure environments with γ photon and neutron fluxes. This study calls for fundamental reconsideration of nuclear physics foundations and stellar evolution models.
Category: Astrophysics

A Review of Multimodal Vision-Language Models: Foundations, Applications, and Future Directions

Authors: Gurpreet Singh
Comments: 26 Pages.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have rapidly become a central focus in both research and practical applications, owing to their remarkable ability to understand and generate text with a level of fluency comparable to human communication. Recently, these models have evolved into multimodal large language models (MM-LLMs), extending their capabilities beyond text to include images, audio, and video. This advancement has enabled a wide array of applications, including text-to-video synthesis, image captioning, and text-to-speech systems. MM-LLMs are developed either by augmenting existing LLMs with multi-modal functionality or by designing multi-modal architectures from the ground up. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the current landscape of LLMs with multi-modal capabilities, highlighting both foundational and cutting-edge MM-LLMs. It traces the historical development of LLMs, emphasizing the transformative impact of transformer-based architectures such as OpenAI's GPT series and Google's BERT, as well as the role of attention mechanisms in improving model performance. The review also examines key strategies for adapting pre-trained models to specific tasks, including fine-tuning and prompt engineering. Ethical challenges, including data bias and the potential for misuse, are discussed to stress the importance of responsible AI deployment. Finally, we explore the implications of open-source versus proprietary models for advancing research in this field. By synthesizing these insights, this paper underscores the significant potential of MM-LLMs to reshape diverse applications across multiple domains.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Radio-Chemistry of the Object 3I/ATLAS

Authors: Dave Chapman
Comments: 4 Pages.

The interstellar object 3I/ATLAS has been observed to emit unusual material. Observations to date suggest that this object contains volatile elements, similar to a comet [1, 2]. Calculations show that the object has been exposed to a combination of low temperatures and high levels of radiation for over one Billion years, which could explain the unusual chemistry of the object. Models indicate that the outer 10-20 meters of the object suggest that a considerable amount of energy may be stored in the form of unstable chemicals, and that these chemicals may release energy when the object’s temperature increases during close approach to the sum.
Category: Astrophysics