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Time

Authors: Sjaak Uitterdijk
Comments: 1 Page. In version 2 some clarifying explanations have been added.

Now here is now there, anywhere in the universe.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

Stringy Phenomenology with Preon Models

Authors: Risto Raitio
Comments: 8 Pages. Parts newly written.

We compare, following Pati, global symmetries our topological supersymmetric preon model with the heterotic E_8 x E_8 string theory. We include Pati's supergravity based preon model in this work and compare the preon interactions of his model to ours. Based on preon-string symmetry comparison and preon phenomenological results we conclude that the fundamental particles are likely preons rather than standard model particles.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Gravitational Time Dilation, Relativistic Gravity Theory, Schwarzschild's Physically Sound Original Metric and the Consequences for Cosmology

Authors: Steven Kenneth Kauffmann
Comments: 14 Pages.

It is natural to assume that the expanding universe was arbitrarily compact in the sufficiently remote past, in which state gravitational time dilation strongly affected its behavior. We first regard gravitational time dilation as the speed time dilation of a clock falling gravitationally from rest. Energy conservation implies that this depends solely on the the Newtonian gravitational potential difference of the clock trajectory's ends. To extend this to the relativistic domain we work out relativistic gravity theory. The metric result it yields for gravitational time dilation is consistent with our Newtonian gravitational potential result in the Newtonian limit. However the Robertson-Walker metric form for the universe implies complete absence of gravitational time dilation. Since we assume the universe was once arbitrarily compact, we turn instead to the metric for a static gravitational point source, but find that its textbook form puts a sufficiently compact universe inside an event horizon. This is due to transformation of the three radial functions which describe a static, spherically-symmetric metric into only two before inserting that now damaged metric form into the Einstein equation. Schwarzschild's original metric solution, which isn't in textbooks, involved no such transformation and therefore is physically sound; we obtain from it a picture of a universe which had an outburst of star and galaxy formation in the wake of its inflation.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

On the Big Split of the Primal Cosmic Substance: Significant Refinement to the Fragmentation and Recombination Pathways

Authors: Bruno R. Galeffi
Comments: 11 Pages.

The emergence of the observable cosmos and non-visible universe(s) from the self-division of a primal and self-existent Substance at high entropy is further developed. In this article, a significant improvement to the partition and recombination pathways driven by the ubiquitous golden ratio is presented. A surprising correlation to the DE, DM, and BM of the standard model for cosmology is found, although some of the vacuum components appear undifferentiated in this later model.
Category: Astrophysics

Proof of the Goldbach's Conjecture

Authors: Xiaohui Li
Comments: 2 Pages.

[A]ny large even number can be written as the sum of two prime numbers, which is also called "strong Goldbach's conjecture" or "Goldbach's conjecture about even numbers". Based on the equality of the sum of all odd numbers and the equality of odd numbers, the values and numbers of prime numbers pr1 and pr2 are separately screened out from the odd combination. By using the equality of the sum of all odd numbers and the equality of all odd numbers, an identity is constructed to obtain 2n=pr1+pr2
Category: Number Theory

Periphery of the Financial System (Outer Circuit)

Authors: Dmitrii V. Guryanov
Comments: 94 Pages.

Nowadays among various participants of the global financial interactions there is a certain need for having a reserve and settlement currency that is not fiat currency. This paper describes a way of how the international financial set of rules could look like when not based on fiat but rather based on commodity type of currency, crowned by a unified global currencyof the same type. This paper is a scientific approach to the problem which ultimately describes the methodology of the provided solution, having a full set of required equations and their annotations.
Category: Economics and Finance

Principle and Experimental Results of Normal Temperature Superconductivity

Authors: Ming-yang Wang
Comments: 7 Pages.

Current is usually considered to be formed by the directional movement of charge. In addition to this classical explanation of electromagnetism, from the perspective of physical phenomenon, current also has "wave" conduction characteristics. Understanding current from the "wave" characteristics and conducting corresponding experimental verification can give us a deeper understanding of current. According to the "fluctuation" characteristics of current and the "lossless" propagation principle of optical fiber, the research team conducted 613 experiments on the combination of different conductor materials with PN junction materials of different materials and different junction depths. Under the conditions of boron-phosphorus type PN junction material, junction depth of 0.356um, wire cross-sectional area of 25mm², at room temperature, The resistance value of the conductor material is close to zero, and the nondestructive conduction of current in a real sense is realized near -32.3℃, without the help of external ultra-low temperature and other conditions, which lays a new theoretical and experimental foundation for the human energy revolution.
Category: Quantum Physics

On the [plausible] Errors of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics

Authors: Sheng-bin Wang, Jia-er Chen, Xue-feng Wu
Comments: 111 Pages.

Physics is also known as a science of observation and experiment. In this paper, the most representative experimental verification of general relativity, "Mercury perihelion precession", is used for mathematical derivation and analysis, and the serious errors in the experimental verification are expounded deeply. Furthermore, the Lorentz transformation, the core formula of special relativity, is mathematically deduced and analyzed, and the contradictions and errors existing in the Lorentz transformation are profoundly revealed. These contradictions and errors involve the deep relationship between physics and mathematics, and are also the core problems faced by theoretical physics. Minkowski's four-dimensional space-time contradicts the "principle of constant speed of light", and there are serious errors in the "relativity of simultaneity". The so-called experimental verification of the theory of relativity is false, and there is a fundamental error in the theory of relativity, which will lead to the collapse of the whole theoretical building, including general relativity.The basic formula of quantum mechanics, "matter wave" wavelength λ=h/p , is also based on the wrong Einstein "mass-energy equation". Therefore, the wave function of "matter wave" established on the wavelength λ=h/p of "de Broglie wave" and the Schrodinger equation are all pseudo-formulas (Truncated by viXra Admin)
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Theoretical Hydrostatics of Floating Bodies: New Developments on the Center of Buoyancy, the Metacentric Radius and the Hydrostatic Stability

Authors: Tsutomu Hori, Manami Hori
Comments: 104 Pages, 26 Figures, 261 Equations, 80 References, 7 Appendices.

This paper presents new developments in the fundamental theory for the hydrostatics of floating bodies, such as a ship. In it, we show that a proof that the center of buoyancy is equal to the center of hydrostatic pressure, a new derivation of the metacenter radius, and theoretical treatments of the hydrostatic stability of floating bodies based on the above two new theories.

In Chapter 1, we prove that " the center of buoyancy of a ship is equal to the center of hydrostatic pressure ". This subject is an unsolved problem in physics and naval architecture, even though the buoyancy taught by Archimedes' principle can be obtained clearly by the surface integral of hydrostatic pressure. As a breakthrough, we dared to create the left-right asymmetric pressure field by inclining the ship with heel angle. In that state, the force and moment due to hydrostatic pressure were calculated correctly with respect to the tilted coordinate system fixed to the floating body. By doing so, we succeeded in determining the center of pressure for the shape of rectangular and arbitrary cross-sections. Then, by setting the heel angle to zero, it was proved that the center of hydrostatic pressure is equal to the well-known center of buoyancy, i.e., the centroid of the cross-sectional area under the water surface in the upright state. Furthermore, we showed an extension to the center of buoyancy for a 3-D floating body.

In Chapter 2, we develop a new theory on the derivation of the transverse metacentric radius which governs the stability of ships. As a new development in its derivation process, it was shown that the direction of movement of the center of buoyancy due to lateral inclination of ship is the direction of the half angle of the heel angle. By finding it, we were able to derive a metacentric radius worthy of its name by showing that the metacentric radius correctly represents the radius centered on the metacenter, which is the center of inclination.

In Chapters 3 and 4, theoretical treatments on the hydrostatic stability of ships are presented. As the simplest hull form, a columnar ship with rectangular cross-section, which is made of homogeneous squared timber with arbitrary breadth and arbitrary material, is chosen. In Chapter 3, the conditions under which the ship is stable in the upright state with horizontal deck are analyzed by means of ship's hydrostatics. And in Chapter 4, the stable attitude in an inclined state of the ship, which is not stable in the upright state with horizontal deck, is analyzed. By doing so, the dependence of the stable conditions and of the inclined attitude on the breadth and material of the ship will be clarified.

In Appendices, we prove that the center of hydrostatic pressure is equal to the well-known center of buoyancy for four shapes separately which are a triangular prism and a semi-submerged circular cylinder as floating bodies, and a submerged circular cylinder and an arbitrary shaped submerged body as submerged bodies.
Category: Classical Physics

Naturally Synthesized Polar Waves and Logic Puzzles

Authors: Guanju Wu
Comments: 13 Pages. This is what I found in my experiment, and hopefully someone will study it.

This paper first introduces a set of devices and methods for synthesizing polar waves, using a special magnetic circuit hidden pole motor to produce two stable fundamental waves, one is similar to harmonics, the other is polar waves with great difference in positive and negative amplitudes, which are natural synthetic waves, non-electronic tuning, different topologies have different phases and shapes. Using a pair of coils with opposite winding directions can make the motor output these two fundamental waves and their inverse waves at the same time. By selecting different wiring methods, four conjugated electromotive forces can be synthesized and exist at the same time, that is, the change of topology is like a logical operation, which can cause the observation results to become multiple equivalent images. If the motor has a pair of mirrored windings and is short-circuited to one of them, then even if the topology is no longer changed, only the direction of motion is changed, the output waveform of the motor in the reciprocal direction will also be significantly different, it does not have formal symmetry: one direction is the same amplitude, the opposite direction is the polar wave with a huge difference between the positive and negative amplitudes, and this difference increases with the increase of the number of turns of the two sets of coils. This means that the observation of natural results may also be affected by logical selection.
Category: Classical Physics

The Eight Planets of the Kepler-47 Star System

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 9 Pages.

Eight planets of the binary star Kepler-47 modulate the gravitational wave at 3.1 $mu$Hz. Three of them are already known. The measured orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's rule, an improved version of the Titus-Bode rule. The phase modulation measurement technique is explained in detail.
Category: Astrophysics

A Chart that Shows Why the Thread Doesn’t Break in Bell’s Spaceship Paradox

Authors: Michael Leon Fontenot
Comments: 4 Pages.

A chart is described that shows, according to inertial observers, the position versus time curves for an array of spaceships, all accelerating with the same constant acceleration (as confirmed by accelerometers). The initial slopes of the curves for the more distant spaceships are negative, which means that they are initially moving backwards (toward the trailing spaceship). And those slopes indicate that the speeds of those spaceships is greater than the speed of light. What is remarkable is that none of those results is problematical.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Two Proofs of Fermat’s Last Theorem by Relating to Monic Polynomial Properties

Authors: Tae Beom Lee
Comments: 5 Pages. (Correction on author name made by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

Fermat's Last Theorem(FLT) states that there is no natural number set {a,b,c,n} which satisfies a^n+b^n=c^n when n≥3. In this thesis, we related the LHS of a^n=c^n-b^n to x^n-a^n and the RHS to x^n-(c^n-b^n). By doing so, we could analyse FLT in view of properties of monic polynomials such as factoring, root structure and graphs.The polynomial properties narrowed the vast possible approaches to FLT to elementary level mathematics. We relied on factoring, rational root theorem and parallel movement of graphs. And we succeeded to find simple proofs of FLT, which many people waited for so long time.
Category: Number Theory

A Differential Datalog Interpreter

Authors: Matthew Stephenson
Comments: 11 Pages.

The core reasoning task for datalog engines is materialization, the evaluation of a datalog program over a database alongside its physical incorporation into the database itself. The de-facto method of computing it, is through the recursive application of inference rules. Due to it being a costly operation, it is a must for datalog engines to provide incremental materialization, that is, to adjustthe computation to new data, instead of restarting from scratch. One of the major caveats, is that deleting data is notoriously more involved than adding, since one has to take into account all possible data that has been entailed from what is being deleted. DifferentialDataflow is a computational model that provides efficient incremental maintenance, notoriously with equal performance between additions and deletions, and work distribution, of iterative dataflows. In this paper we investigate the performance of materialization with three reference datalog implementations, out of which one is built on top of a lightweight relational engine, and the two others are differential-dataflow and non-differential versions of the same rewrite algorithm, with the same optimizations.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

On the Calculation of the Corner Frequency in Bode Plots

Authors: Aloys J. Sipers, Joh. J. Sauren
Comments: 7 Pages.

In this paper we prove that the relationship ωτ = 1 is a property of logarithmic scale of the horizontal axis in Bode plots. We illustrate the results of our derivations and mathematical conclusions by calculating the point of intersection of the horizontal and the oblique asymptote in a magnitudeplot and the point of symmetry in a phase plot.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Structural Embeddings of Tools for Large Language Models

Authors: Eren Unlu
Comments: 5 Pages.

It is evident that the current state of Large Language Models (LLMs) necessitates the incorporation of external tools. The lack of straightforward algebraic and logical reasoning is well documented and prompted researchers to develop frameworks which allow LLMs to operate via external tools. The ontological nature of tool utilization for a specific task can be well formulated with a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). The central aim of the paper is to highlight the importance of graph based approaches to LLM-tool interaction in near future. We propose an exemplary framework to guide the orchestration of exponentially increasing numbers of external tools with LLMs, where objectives and functionalities of tools are graph encoded hierarchically. Assuming that textual segments of a Chain-of-Thought (CoT) can be imagined as a tool as defined here, the graph based framework can pave new avenues in that particular direction as well.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Entire Universe Has Been Expanding at the Speed of Light: Comprehensive Study of the Hubble Constant Throughout the Ages of the Universe

Authors: Stephen E. Shum
Comments: 7 Pages.

Our entire universe is found to be inflating exactly at the speed of light, warranting renewedthinking about the true nature of dark energy, dark matter and topology of the universe. In thisresearch, how the values of the Hubble Constant changed along the time axis is discussed.The current Hubble constant is found = Speed of light / Age of the Universe This suggests an alternative explanation for the expansion of the universe.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Basic Notions of Classical Physics

Authors: Vladimir S. Netchitailo
Comments: 16 Pages.

Classical Physics is a branch of Physics that should be described by classical notions, which define emergent phenomena. An Emergent Phenomenon is a property that is a result of simple interactions that work cooperatively to create a more complex interaction. Physically, simple interactions occur at a microscopic level, and the collective result can be observed at a macroscopic level. The developed World-Universe Model (WUM) introduces classical notions, when the very first ensemble of particles was created at the cosmological time τ_M≅10^(-18) s and become possible to introduce the notion "Medium of the World". We emphasize that Classical Physics is principally different from Quantum Physics that describes quantum objects, which have four-momenta only. Classical Physics is dealing with ensembles of quantum objects! The present paper discusses the Basic Notions of Classical Physics considering a principally different cosmological model WUM, which is, in fact, a Paradigm Shift for Cosmology. WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics, and it can already serve as a basis for a New Cosmology proposed by Paul Dirac in 1937.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Quantum Gravity Gedanken Experiment and its Consequences

Authors: Shantikumar Nair
Comments: 18 Pages.

A simple gedanken experiment was proposed that imagines an observer shrinking down and entering the inner space of the atom. This led to five postulates which was justified mathematically using a quantum potential-modified spacetime structure within the atom. The new spacetime structure demonstrated that space was expanded within the atom, time was slowed down and inertial mass was increased. The paper also demonstrated that the uncertainty principle may have its origins in the modification of spacetime within the atom. Application of general relativity to the intraatomic space showed that charge emerges in a natural way from the changes in the spacetime structure. Within the atom, the term 8πG could be replaced with (2(e/m)^2)/ϵ_0 in the gravitational field equation. The absence of nuclear radiations could be attributed to the presence of a black-hole-like horizon around the nucleus, which also could explain the extraordinary stability of the electron within the atom that contains a positively charged nucleus. The spacetime transformation would appear to make the atomic world self-similar to, or symmetric with, the macroscopic world. The product of the space and time intervals in spacetime was invariant, which is in effect a law of conservation of spacetime. Thus, it appeared that spacetime may not be just a field of coordinate points, but a real entity that could be associated with both mass and energy. Inertial mass could be directly related to the proportion of space and time within spacetime.
Category: Quantum Physics

A Study on the Physical Mechanism of Universal Gravitation and Space-time Curvature

Authors: Yake Li
Comments: 17 Pages.

It has been proven in studies that the speed of light remains absolutely constant within a local area, but relative changes in the speed of light can occur between different local areas. The speed of light that changes with space is the physical factor responsible for the generation of gravitational acceleration g ( g=−(��������^2)/�������� ). Within a range of 10 m, it is possible to generate a gravitational acceleration g = 10 m/s² with only a relative change in the speed of light at △ C=-0.000000166782 (m/s), which is a remarkable feat. The change in the speed of light can be attributed to the influence of the mass of an object on the physical properties of vacuum μ0ε0, which changes it with space. Although it is a minor change to the object in space, it results in the establishment of high and low energy states, and consequently, the object will spontaneously move towards the low energy state. In such a space, an object is equivalent to being subjected to the action of gravity ��������, and ��������=−����0��������2��������. In this article, the physical mechanism of the conduction of gravity in space and the physical mechanism of space-time curvature are explained.
Category: Astrophysics

Unification of Electromagnetism and Gravity by Correction of Ill Defined Speed of Light

Authors: Manfred U. E. Pohl
Comments: 8 Pages.

So far it has been worked out that the circle number connects space and time in 12 Dimensions and the speed of light in vacuum only represents the Diameter of planet earth and the rotation duration of one revolution of planet earth around its own axis (a day), because in 1793 the "meter" of length in space was defined to represent the circumference of planet earth, while the "second" of time was defined to represent 24 hours 60 minutes and 60 seconds (a day). The author tries to explain here how, on the basis of these findings, the system of units would have to be reformed in order to complete the connection found by Einstein and thus dissolve all natural constants (which only represent planet Earth) and to understand gravitation and electromagnetism as a unified interaction and to reinterpret quantum theory: God does not play dice, humanity play dice.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Fundamental Forces Are not Fundamental as Our 3-D Universe is Driven by an External Energy Source

Authors: Pushpak N. Bhandari, Nandan M. Bhandari
Comments: 20 Pages.

To find a solution to many unsolved mysteries in physics, a new theory has been proposed. This theory proposes an external source of energy that is responsible for all so-called fundamental forces associated with the elementary particles. New dimensions called O-reality and O- imaginary, which are sources of external energy to our 3-D universe, are introduced. These are energy-filled totally symmetric dimensions wherein time does not exist. Current theory states that the energy of elementary particles is by virtue of an external source and not an intrinsic property. This theory integrates quantum particles with gravitational force and holds the potential to solve most existing unsolved problems. A mathematical model is developed using this theory for the calculation of the gravitational force. The results of the gravitational force obtained by this model, wherein the energy source responsible for the gravitational force has an external origin, are in accordance with Newtonian values. This theory brings quantum physics and gravitational force under one umbrella and opens the door for the reasoning behind many unsolved problems in physics. This theory leads to a new approach towards explaining the origin of Universe, dark matter, dark energy, quantum entanglement, double slit experiment and wave particle duality, superposition, holographic universe, uncertainty principle, origin of time and its unidirectional property, increasing entropy.
Category: Astrophysics

Imre Lakatos: Heuristics and Methodological Tolerance

Authors: Nicolae Sfetcu
Comments: 35 Pages. In Romanian (Correction made by viXra admin - For the last time, please conform!)

An analysis of the concepts of heuristics and methodological tolerance developed by Lakatos, based on the article "Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programs", first published in 1970 and then in the book The methodology of scientific research programs, Volume I. I analyzed, in this text, the author's exemplification for Bohr's light emission research program (in early quantum physics). A detailed exemplification of the concepts is presented by Lakatos in the section "Newton's effect on scientific standards" in the same book. I have also made frequent references to the book Proofs and Refutations (Lakatos 1976) published by Lakatos in 1976, in which he exposes his heuristic view through a direct application to the evolution of mathematics, and I have also referred to articles by other authors for the analysis of the two concepts in Lakatos' view.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

The Catalas Model: A Novel Theoretical Framework for Dual-role Producer-Consumer Exchanges Involving Third-Party Beneficiaries and Intermediaries

Authors: Bryce Petofi Towne
Comments: 15 Pages.

The Catalas Model introduces a novel theoretical framework for understanding dual-role producer-consumer exchanges involving third-party beneficiaries and intermediaries. This study identifies the limitations of traditional frameworks and develops the Catalas Model to capture the complexities of modern market exchanges. The model incorporates the roles of third-party beneficiaries and intermediaries in the exchange process, offering valuable insights into market efficiency, consumer welfare, and overall economic performance. The applicability of the Catalas Model is demonstrated through real-world case studies, showcasing its adaptability across various industries and market scenarios. Furthermore, the research identifies key factors influencing exchange performance and discusses potential policy implications for regulators, businesses, and consumers. This innovative framework contributes to the literature by providing a more comprehensive understanding of intricate producer-consumer relationships in contemporary market exchanges.
Category: Economics and Finance

Beyond the Riemann Hypothesis

Authors: Hideharu Maki
Comments: 173 Pages.

The functional equation of real variable that Riemann used in his paper was subjected to elementary operations. And I obtained a lot of complex functional equations that the Riemann zeta function follows respectively. Here, functional equation transformations were the main methods for obtaining the complex functional equations. Half of those are equivalent to the complete symmetric functional equation that the Riemann Xi function follows, and one of those has an origin symmetry with correction terms. From the origin symmetric functional equation including correction terms, the representation containing the leading term of the zeta function for any complex number was obtained. And the Riemann hypothesis was proved by applying reduction to absurdity. Moreover the general representation containing the leading term of the zeta function for any odd number of 3 or more was also obtained. By suitably combining those functional equations, I observed a new explicit formula for the zeta function. The Riemann hypothesis was again proven using the deductive method. And two types of general representations for the zeta function for any odd number of either 3 or 7, or more, were also obtained from the explicit formula. In total, three types of general representations for the zeta function for any odd number of either 3 or 7, or more, were discovered. Conversely, I defined a new function, named the Chi function, for the left side of the origin symmetric functional equation that includes corrective terms. The Chi function is similar to the Riemann Xi function and exhibits origin symmetry. Furthermore, I defined a new function, the eta function, which is similar to the zeta function. The eta function's pole and trivial zeros are the same as those of the zeta function. Furthermore, the Chi and the eta functions have the same non-trivial zeros on the imaginary axis. Here, the imaginary axis corresponds to the critical line of the eta function. And I proposed a generalized Riemann hypothesis for the eta function that states that all non-trivial zeros lie on the imaginary axis. Since I was able to discover the explicit formula for the eta function, the deductive method was used to prove the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the eta function.
Category: Number Theory

A Proof of Fermat’s Conjecture

Authors: Olivier Massot
Comments: Clearer writing of subsections 2.6.1 and 2.6.2 pages 27 & 28

This study (in English) leads to a different formulation of the Newton's Binomial expansion. From there, a proof of Fermat's conjecture seems possible.
Category: Number Theory

Khasi-Jaintia Jaids( Surnames) and the Graphical law

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 18 Pages. A mistake in plotting BW(c=0.01) has been rectified

We study the Khasi-Jaintia Jaids( Surnames). We draw the natural logarithm of the number ofthe Jaids of the Khasi-Jaintia tribes, normalised, starting with a letter vs the natural logarithmof the rank of the letter, normalised. We conclude that the Khasi-Jaintia Jaids( Surnames) canbe characterised by the magnetisation curve, BW(c=0.005), of the Ising Model in the Bragg-Williams approximation in the presence of external magnetic field, H. c =H/γε= 0.005 with ε beingthe strength of coupling between two neighbouring spins in the Ising Model, γ representing thenumber of nearest neighbours of a spin, which very large.
Category: Social Science

The Human Optimization Method (PhD)

Authors: Satish Gajawada
Comments: 5 Pages.

This paper is dedicated to everyone who is interested in the Artificial Intelligence. In the past, researchers have explored behavior of chromosomes, birds, fishes, ants, bacteria, bees and so on to create excellent optimization methods for solving complex optimization problems. The author proposed the Human Optimization in this paper. Humans progressed like anything. They help each other. There are so many plus points in Humans. In fact all optimization algorithms based on other beings are created by Humans. There is so much to explore in behavior of Human for creating awesome optimization algorithms. Artificial Fishes, birds, ants, bees etc have solved optimization problems. Similarly, optimization method based on Humans is expected to solve complex problems. This paper sets the trend for all optimization algorithms that come in future based on Humans.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Analytical Proof of Collatz Conjecture

Authors: Ahmed Idrissi Bouyahyaoui
Comments: 6 Pages. In English and French

Let xi = 2^αi*yi and vi = 2^βi*zi , x0, yi and zi are odd integers. The sequence {xi + vi} built by Collatz algorithm is a Collatz sequence if it exists n such that xn + vn = 1. By hypothesis S(y0) is a Collatz sequence, then it exists at least one i such that yi = 1, xi = 2^αi*yi = 2^αi and vi = zi (because vi < xi and xi + vi > 0). As for every k ≥ i yk Є [1, 4, 2], xk + vk is of form : xk + vk = 2^αk + zk. For every optimal point (k, xk + vk), continuous and differentiable function f(α) = x + v = 2^α + z has a zero derivative and the primitive function z = - 2^α + c, c is an arbitrary integer constant.For every optimum we have : f(α) = c. At the optimum minimum = 1, it exists at least one n such that, yn Є [1, 4, 2], f(αn) = xn + vn = 2^αn + zn = 2^αn - 2^αn + c = c. For the minimum f(αn) = 1, it suffices to set c = 1 and so we have :f(αn) = xn + vn = 1, xn = 2^αn and vn = — (2^αn — 1). Conclusion : The sequence S(x0 +2) ends in 1 and has the only cycle [1, 4, 2, 1].So by recurrence, every positive integer number gives a Collatz sequence.
Category: Number Theory

Why the Nuclear Drip Line Skews

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 24 Pages.

Helium-4 nucleus is shown with the six attachment points for added neutrons and four attachment points for added protons, which matches the known isotopes of helium.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

What Connects the Expulsion from Paradise with Mathematics and Physics

Authors: Manfred U. E. Pohl
Comments: 9 Pages. (This submission is reclassified by viXra Admin)

What is the seduction behind the expulsion from paradise in detail? If we recognize that "time" stands on the one hand for the principle of cause and effect and thus for the interaction between nature (God) and man and on the other hand for the principle of relativity (movement) and separate these two things, then we limit the area of mathematically formally describable perception to the earthly level and respect that the causal level, i.e. the real drive of the universe, cannot be described with formulas, numbers and physical units, but exists. This is exactly what man has deviated from when he defined "time" as a physical unit in order to explore the essence, i.e. the laws of nature (God), which, however, must remain closed to him on principle. In other words, by embarking on a search for a mathematically describable reality, man takes the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge. The world formula, on the other hand, says: There can be no such world formula.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Gravity Between Stars on a Galactic Scale

Authors: Kurt L. Becker
Comments: 12 Pages.

This paper tries to present a mechanism for Modified Newtonian Dynamics.The gravitational effect, believed to be caused by dark matter, is due to the self-interaction of two gravitational fields around the center line between any two stars. This self-interaction results in increased radial compression of spacetime toward the center line. As will be shown below, it will result in a very slightincrease in gravity between all stars at stellar distances. We know that at interstellar distances, Newtonian gravity is too weak to hold our galaxy together, thus the invention of a halo of dark matter. Very narrow tubes between all starsare holding the Milky Way galaxy together due to two effects: One is that its gravitational acceleration, as empirically estimated by Modified Newtonian Dynamics, by M. Milgrom, decreases only with distance, not with distance squared, as Newtonian gravity does. Ref. 1 The other one is, there are hundreds of trillions of these gravitational flux tubes between the hundreds of billions of stars in our galaxy. A gravitational flux tube can be compared to a bungee tube towrope used by water skiers, which is always under tension.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Proof of the Legendre Conjecture

Authors: Radomir Majkic
Comments: 11 Pages.

If Legendre conjecture does not hold all integers in the interior of BT (n^{2},(n+1)^{2})ET are composed numbers. The composite integers counting shown that the rate of the number of the odd composites to the number of odd integers in theinterior of BT (n^{2},(n+1)^{2})ET is smaller than one. Consequently, the Legendre conjecture holds.
Category: Number Theory

Exploring for the Mutation Rules of Spike Protein of Sars-Cov-2 Using Genetic Code and I Ching

Authors: Ruo Shui
Comments: 11 Pages.

COVID-19 has nearly come to an end, Rapid and simultaneous mutations from diversified variants have emerged, and this more attributes to convergent evolution. The driving force behinds this convergent evolution remains unclear. This presents a major unaddressed challenge to dig into the mutation rules of SARS-CoV-2. In view of the corresponding relationship between 3-triplets of DNA and 64 hexagrams of Chinese old book I Ching, I have found the remarkable mutations of Spike protein from predominant variants may imply the trend of this pandemic. The divergent evolutionary course from Alpha to Delta and Omicron shows the universal developing process just like start-making big-stop-mutual win process.
Category: Biochemistry

Reformulation of Syracuse Function and Its Convergence

Authors: Rakesh Timsina
Comments: 9 Pages.

This paper presents a geometrical approach to tackle the infamous Collatz conjecture. In this approach, we represent odd natural numbers as points in 2-D space. We then define a iterative geometrical algorithm and prove that this algorithm is equivalent to the Collatz function (more precisely, Syracuse function). Using the monotone convergence theorem, we prove the sequence generated by this algorithm always converges to 1. Since, this is same as saying Collatz (Syracuse) sequence converges to 1, we prove that the Collatz conjecture is true.
Category: Number Theory

Une Démonstation de la Conjecture de Fermat (a Proof of Fermat's Conjecture)

Authors: Olivier Massot
Comments: Clearer writing of subsections 2.6.1 and 2.6.2 pages 27 & 28

This study (in French) leads to a different formulation of the Newton's Binomial expansion. From there, a proof of Fermat's conjecture seems possible.
Category: Number Theory

Khasi-Jaintia Jaids (Surnames)

Authors: Anindya Kumar Biswas
Comments: 22 Pages.

We collect and put together the jaids( surnames) of Khasi-Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya, of India, in this paper. There are more jaids than presented in the paper.
Category: Social Science

Mathematical Proof of Proof 1^i=1

Authors: Robert S. Miller
Comments: 5 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

This paper details the expression 1^i=1. It uses a known trigonometric substitutions in a mathematical proof showing the accuracy of the expression.
Category: Algebra

Solved the Mathematical Problem Called the Oldest of Mathematical Problems

Authors: Giovanni Di Savino
Comments: 1 Page.

It is mathematical that: there are more planes in the ocean than submarines in the sky; there are more unaccepted essays than published essays; referring to the correspondence used to control the herd 3500 years ago, the mathematical problem defined as the oldest of mathematical problems "Why cannot exist perfect odd numbers" is mathematically demonstrated, but it is with mathematics, applied to the herd, that it is demonstrated that there are even perfect numbers and there are no perfect odd solutions.
Category: Number Theory

Training Self-supervised Class-conditional GANs with Classifier Gradient Penalty and Dynamic Prior

Authors: Jeongik Cho
Comments: 16 Pages.

Class-conditional GAN generates class-conditional data from continuous latent distribution and categorical distribution. Typically, a class-conditional GAN can be trained only when the label, which is the conditional categorical distribution of the target data, is given. In this paper, we propose a novel GAN that allows the model to perform self-supervised class-conditional data generation and clustering without knowing labels, optimal prior categorical probability, or metric function. The proposed method uses a discriminator, a classifier, and a generator. The classifier is trained with cross-entropy loss to predict the conditional vector of the fake data. Also, the conditional vector of real data predicted by the classifier is used to train the class-conditional GAN. When training class-conditional GAN with this classifier, the decision boundary of the classifier falls to the local optima where the density of the data is minimized. The proposed method adds a classifier gradient penalty loss to the classifier loss to prevent the classifier's decision boundary from falling into narrow a range of local optima. It regulates the gradient of the classifier's output to prevent the gradient near the decision boundary from becoming too large. As the classifier gradient penalty loss weight increases, the decision boundary falls into a wider range of local optima. It means that the sensitivity of each class can be adjusted by the weight of the gradient penalty loss. Additionally, the proposed method updates the prior categorical probability with the categorical probability of real data predicted by the classifier. As training progresses, the entropy of the prior categorical probability decreases and converges according to the classifier gradient penalty loss weight.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Interstellar Matter is the Main Cause of Hubble Redshift and the Testing Method of Hubble's Law

Authors: Xiaotao Peng
Comments: 24 Pages.

The article "Eight Magnifiers Relay to Take a Picture of Dark Matter Halo" published by science and technology hall, China on September 3, 2020 introduced the situation of taking pictures of dark matter, and posted relevant photos. So what is the so-called dark matter halo in these photos made of? What are their physical meanings? These so-called dark matter should only be normal matter with low temperature and little visible light, which we can call interstellar matter.The existence of interstellar matter directly excludes the possibility that Hubble redshift is Doppler effect, and at the same time, the existence of interstellar matter will cause astronomical observers on earth to actually observe only the secondary light produced by interstellar matter, rather than the primary light produced by celestial bodies. In the process of producing secondary light, the frequency of interstellar matter will decrease slightly every time it is regenerated. Therefore, when interstellar matter is regarded as macroscopic isotropic and basically uniform, the frequency of starlight will decrease in direct proportion to the distance, which is called Hubble redshift. This is the mechanism and truth of Hubble redshift.Since Hubble discovered in 1929 that the redshift of celestial bodies is proportional to the distance between celestial bodies and the earth, it is believed that the redshift of celestial bodies is the Doppler effect caused by the retrogression of celestial bodies, and then the redshift of celestial bodies is directly converted into the retrogressive velocity of celestial bodies and Hubble's law is deduced, in which the coefficient is called Hubble constant. But up to now, the values of Hubble constant measured by different methods are not completely the same. The emergence of this phenomenon may indicate that there is a fundamental error in Hubble's law: the fact that the redshift of celestial bodies is proportional to the distance is not the Doppler effect caused by the retrogression of celestial bodies, but the result of interstellar matter. This paper puts forward some analysis and discussion on this, which can be used for reference by interested friends.
Category: Classical Physics

A Conjecture: no Dark Matter Will be Discovered at LHC, or Elsewhere

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 18 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/

CERN restarted the upgraded Large Hadron Collider (LHC), third run, with among its objectives the hope to detect "Dark Matter". With this paper, based on the multi-fold theory, and its encounter in General Relativity (GR) and Yang Mills theory, we apply the Occam’s razor principle to expect that no dark matter, including axions, will the detected at LHC or elsewhere, just as we also predicted that no supersymmetric partners will ever be encountered. The Multi-fold-derived Ultimate Unification (UU) furthers hints at no other fundamental particle above the (gravity) electroweak symmetry breaking energy scale, unless if UU had its own particles, something not likely, or if new and unknown interactions, non-supersymmetric, were to exist. The latter is something that may not be that likely either, especially as we have separately argued that the multi-fold theory predicts the Standard Model (SM) symmetries and can be seen as a quasi TOE that predicts most of its properties. Of course, these predictions do not include the massless Higgs boson, the particle responsible for the random walk, and spacetime location concretization.Interestingly, the paper also provides a random walk explanation for the absence of supersymmetry in a universe with a positive cosmological constant 4D , or lower dimensions, spacetime.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A Solvable Quintic Equation

Authors: Tai-Choon Yoon
Comments: 7 Pages.

This article presents a solvable quintic equation under the conditions that several coef-ficients of a quintic equation are restricted to become dependent on the other coefficients.We can solve a quintic equation by restricting two coefficients among total four coefficientsavailable. If a quintic equation has a quadratic factor (x^2 + b_1 x + b_0), then we get a twosimultaneous equations, which can be solved by using a sextic equation under restriction.
Category: Algebra

Networked Robots Architecture for Multiple Simultaneous Bidirectional Real Time Connections

Authors: Sasan Ardalan, Donald Elkins
Comments: 18 Pages.

The Architecture for Networked Robots presented in this paper, is designed so that entities at the Enterprise level, such as a Java Application can access multiple Robots with real-time, two-way, on-demand reading of sensors and the control over Robot motion (actuators). If an application can simultaneously have access to the sensors of multiple Robots, then sophisticated algorithms can be developed to coordinate the movement of multiple robots. The simultaneous combined full knowledge of all aspects of the Robot's sensors and motion control, open up the capability to make multiple Robots act in a coordinated and purposeful way. In addition, the Networked Robots Architecture allows for multiple Enterprise Entities to have simultaneous access to the same Robot. A significant aspect of this architecture is that multiple independent entities can simultaneously access the Robot through a real time connection. For example, while a Java Application is monitoring and controlling a Robot, another entity such as an HTML5 WebSocket Client can also control and monitor the same Robot through a Web Browser. A multi-threaded WebSocket Server with routing is combined with a separate multi-threaded TCP/IP Server called the Frontline Server. The Robots connect through the Frontline Server which creates a thread per connection and connects to the WebSocket Server. The WebSocket server accepts connections through Enterprise Applications( e.g. Java based) and Remote Web Based Applications. Each Robot has a unique identification (48 bit represented in hexadecimal) and a truncated WebSocket Session ID that is maintained throughout the connections, including in the Robot's Firmware. Both WiFi LAN and 4G LTE WAN are supported with Robots in both networks accessible through the Internet.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Undecidability of the Riemann Hypothesis

Authors: Yinghao Luo
Comments: 3 Pages.

The Riemann zeta function in the Riemann hypothesis equals zero for both all negative even integers and an infinite number of complex numbers with real part 1/2. We can conclude that Riemann hypothesis is undecidable.
Category: Number Theory

The Fate of Supersymmetry in Quantum Field Theories

Authors: Risto Raitio
Comments: 15 Pages. v2. Section 3 revised. Published in JHEPGC Vol.10 No.2, Apr 2024.

We analyze the significance of supersymmetry in two topological models and the standard model (SM). We conclude that the two topological field theory models favor hidden supersymmetry. The SM superpartners, instead, have not been found.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Poynting's Theorem and Undecidability of The Logic of Causality in Light of EPR Completeness Condition

Authors: Abhishek Majhi
Comments: 13 Pages.

The most elementary empirical truth associated with any experiment involving light (electromagnetic radiation) propagation is the distinction between the source (region of cause) and the detector (region of effect), i.e. ``cause/effect'' distinction, based on which one can speak of ``distance between source and detector'', ``propagation from source to detector'' and, therefore, ``action at a distance'', ``velocity of propagation''. According to EPR's completeness condition, ``cause/effect'' distinction should be taken into account in a theory that is supposed to provide explanations for such an experiment, the simplest one being the Hertz experiment. Then, in principle, one can decide whether ``cause before effect'' or ``cause after effect'' i.e. the logic of causality remains decidable. I show that, working with Maxwell's equations and ``cause/effect'' distinction to explain Hertz experiment, Poynting's theorem is unprovable. It is provable if and only if ``cause/effect'' distinction is erased by choice through an act of free will, but the logic of causality becomes undecidable. The current theoretical foundation behind the hypothesis of `light propagation' comes into question as theoretical optics is founded upon Maxwell's equations and Poynting's theorem. A revisit to the foundations of electrodynamics, with an emphasis on the interplay among logic, language and operation, seems necessary and motivated.
Category: Classical Physics

Part III of the Correction of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 21 Pages. In French

This is the part III and the last of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

How to Receive Continuous Gravitational Waves

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 8 Pages.

The Kepler space telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) have discovered numerous multiple star systems emitting GW. Some of these have planets that phase modulate the GW and allow the planetary mass to be determined. The detection techniques are explained in detail using examples.
Category: Astrophysics

Verfahren Zum Empfang Von Kontinuierlichen Gravitationswellen (How to Receive Continuous Gravitational Waves)

Authors: Herbert Weidner
Comments: 8 Pages. In German

Mit dem Kepler space telescope und dem Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) wurden zahlreiche Mehrfach-Sternsysteme entdeckt, die GW abstrahlen. Manche davon besitzen Planeten, die die GW phasenmodulieren. Die Nachweistechniken werden an Beispielen ausführlich erklärt.

The Kepler space telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) have discovered numerous multiple star systems emitting GW. Some of these have planets that phase modulate the GW and allow the planetary mass to be determined. The detection techniques are explained in detail using examples.
Category: Astrophysics

Some Notes on Shadows

Authors: Ryan J. Buchanan
Comments: 4 Pages. (Abstract added to Article by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

These notes were taken whilst thinking about the monotone-light factorization, which lead to the productive idea of a shadow category, or a certain kind of category with a preordered structure.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Quantum Resonances in Perfect Cosmology

Authors: Francis M. Sanchez
Comments: 7 Pages.

As predicted, the "Universe breakers" galaxies is a one more confirmation of the Perfect Cosmology (steady-state model). Moreover, the main cosmological parameters show quantum resonances using the large Lucas and Eddington numbers. This confirms that matter is a matter-antimatter oscillation and dark matter a quadrature one. This confirms also the BIPM $G$ value, larger by 1.7times 10^{-4} than the official one.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Boys Localization and Pipek-Mezey Localization of Internal Coordinates and New Intermolecular Coordinates in Turbomole

Authors: Malte von Arnim
Comments: 26 Pages.

Local internal coordinates were achieved with simplified Versions of the localization methods of Boys and Pipek-Mezey. By truncation of the orthogonality tails these internal coordinates can be made even more local. The simplified Versions of the Boys localization and of the Pipek-Mezey localization could be applied to any set of orthonormal vectors, if one can assign a location to each component of these vectors. New intermolecular coordinates for supermolecules were implemented in Turbomole. The generation of internal coordinates becomes more stable and the geometry optimization is much faster in some cases.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Existence of a Physical Phenomenon that Accelerates Particles with Mass to the Speed of Light and Transforms Them into Dark Energy and Dark Matter

Authors: Zouhair bezzar
Comments: 8 Pages.

The present theory explores the behavior of the expression of relative mass, M(v), with respect to the speed of light (v=c) and suggests that dark matter or dark energy could be composed of ordinary particles with mass that have reached the speed of light. The theory delves into a mathematical analysis of the series representing the relative mass function, M(v), and discusses its divergence at v=c, drawing parallels with the regularization of the Casimir effect using the Riemann zeta function, which gives M(c)=-M(c-1) at v=c. It proposes the existence of a natural phenomenon that accelerates ordinary matter with mass to the speed of light and transforms it into dark matter or dark energy with negative relative mass and finite energy.
Category: Astrophysics

A Three Curvatures Universe Model

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 21 Pages.

All matter has parity, charge and time reversed antimatter coexisting congruently with it. Two nested half sphere universes exist.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Qubit Research and Atomic Orbitals

Authors: David L. Johnson
Comments: 4 Pages.

Paralleling recent advances in the areas of nanoscience, large-scale integrated circuit development and quantum computing, are technologies that allow the manipulation and control of individual atoms and electrons. With the promise of increased miniaturisation, faster parallel computing and register-per-bit-pair capabilities purported by quantum computing, currently multiple technologies are being developed to represent quantum bits (qubits) by the quantum spin of atoms and electrons and the chiral spin of photons. These technologies and the associated research are also providing new insights that may change our understanding of the sub-atomic world and electron orbitals in particular.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Quaternionic Generalization of Telegraph Equations

Authors: Victor L. Mironov, Sergey V. Mironov
Comments: 13 Pages.

Using non-commutative space-time quaternion algebra, we represent the generalization of one-dimensional and three-dimensional telegraph equations, which are widely applied to consider the propagation of an electromagnetic signal in communication lines, as well as to describe particle diffusion and heat transfer. It is shown that the system of telegraph equations can be represented in compact form as a single quaternion equation taking into account the space-time properties of physical quantities. The distinctive features of the one-dimensional and three-dimensional telegraph equations are discussed.
Category: Mathematical Physics

A Comparative Analysis of Smart Contract Fuzzers’ Effectiveness

Authors: Antonio Viggiano
Comments: 5 Pages. DeFi Security Summit, July 15-16, 2023, Paris, France

This study presents a comparative analysis of randomized testing algorithms, commonly known as fuzzers, with a specific emphasis on their effectiveness in catching bugs in Solidity smart contracts. We employ the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test to gauge performance, defined as the ``time to break invariants per mutant'', using altered versions of the widely-forked Uniswap v2 protocol. We conduct 30 tests, each with a maximum duration of 24 hours or 4,294,967,295 runs, and evaluate the speed at which the fuzzers Foundry and Echidna can breach any of the 22 protocol's invariant properties for each of the 12 mutants, created both with mutation testing tools and with manual bug injection methods. The research shows significant performance variabilities between runs for both Foundry and Echidna depending on the instances of mutated code. Our analysis indicates that Foundry was able to break invariants faster in 9 out of 12 tests, while Echidna in 1 out of 12 tests, and in the remaining 2 tests, the difference in performance between the two fuzzers was not statistically significant. The paper concludes by emphasizing the necessity for further research to incorporate additional fuzzers and real-world bugs, and paves ground for further developments of more precise and rigorous evaluations of fuzzer effectiveness.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Gravity's Bridge: Investigating the Link Between Parallel Space, Negative Matter, and Dark Matter's Interaction with Our Universe

Authors: Redouane belfakih
Comments: 8 Pages.

The circle and the straight line are two expressions of the same mathematical principle, revealing the intricate interplay between order and chaos in the universe. This principle also explains why the proper time for light is null. In this study, we explore the concept of light acceleration, which is a shared property with all matter in the universe. Similarly, we delve into the abstract nature of dark matter, viewing it as a body in the universe whose components remain unknown, yet interacts with our world only through gravity. Notably, Negative matter bends the fabric of spacetime according to a novel model, revealing the existence of two interconnected universes or spaces through gravity.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Should We Short Sell the Environment or the Planet

Authors: Tariq Khan
Comments: 2 Pages.

A short reflective essay discussing the likelihood of human nature leading to the destruction of our environment if not the entire planet, thus, implying one could actually profit via a financial short sell of these asset resources. The nature of intelligence in our universe and as a tool for "selfish genes" is considered versus capitalism as a driver of excess resource utilization and growth.
Category: History and Philosophy of Physics

Higher Rank Substitutions for Tensor Decompositions. I. Direct Sum Conjectures

Authors: Yaroslav Shitov
Comments: 85 Pages.

The substitution method of tensor rank computation is a higher dimensional analogue of Gaussian elimination, and it builds on the fact that the removal of a rank one slice s and a subsequent addition of arbitrary scalar multiples of s to all other slices of the same direction decreases the minimum rank exactly by one. We explain how to embed an initial tensor T to a larger linear space and replace its higher rank slice g by a family f of rank one slices in the new space so that the substitutions performed with respect to g in every direction of T have the same effect on the minimum rank as the corresponding substitutions with respect to f. We present several applications, which include a resolution of the well known and widely studied direct sum conjecture for Waring ranks and a strong form of counterexamples to Strassen’s conjecture.
Category: Algebra

Field Mechanics

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 8 Pages.

Fields have an infinite distance of influence and act instantaneously without transit time of a vector boson
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

SunQM-6s5: Using {N,n} QM Field Theory to Describe A Propagating Photon as A 3D Spherical Wave Packet with the Oscillation Among Three QM States

Authors: Yi Cao
Comments: 27 Pages.

The framework of the newly designed {N,n} QM field theory has been established in papers of SunQM-6, -6s1, -6s2, -6s3, and -6s4. It includes: re-classified the four fundamental forces to be three pair of forces (E/RFe-force, G/RFg-force, and S/RFs-force); all point-centered fields (including the mass field, the force field and the energy field) can be represented by the Schrodinger equation/solution (in form of non-Born probability as well as in the form of 3D spherical wave packet); the non-Born probability description that equals to the re-explanation of the Born probability density as the collection of all elliptical orbital tracks, the 3D wave packet description and the dis-entanglement of the outmost shell (i.e., the "general decaying" process), the "|nL0> elliptical/parabolic/hyperbolic orbital transition model", and the trick that using the high-frequency n’ quantum number to pin-point any small region in the {N,n} QM field. In the current paper, using the E/RFe-force pair (but in an inversed mode), I re-described a propagating photon’s 1D transverse wave by using a 3D spherical wave packet in the form of a non-Born probability (NBP) density ball that oscillates between |2,1,1> and |2,1,-1> QM states (through a middle state that is a mixture of equal amount of |2,1,1>, |2,1,-1> and |2,1,0> QM states). In this way, now we are able to describe a propagating photon as a single ball (which is more like its true shape than a 1D wave). The detailed structure of this multi-shell 3D wave packet has been analyzed. After emitted from a H-atom, an apparently linear polarized 656.1 nm photon actually is a circular polarized photon, with the (default) spin angular momentum in perpendicular to the propagation direction. The special relativity effect makes it appeared to be the linear polarized. Then, after passing through some different optic materials, this photon’s spin vector can be reoriented in the 3D space (relative to its propagation direction) to produce either a right circular polarized, or a left circular polarized, or a 90° reoriented linear polarized, or an elliptical polarized photon. However, whatever the reorientation the spin vector has, its value is always 1ℏ.
Category: Quantum Physics

Generative Pre-Trained Transformers, Natural Language Processing and Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (Ai/ml) in Software Vulnerability Management: Automations in the Software Bill of Materials (Sbom) and the Vulnerability-Exploitability Excha

Authors: Petar Radanliev, David De Roure, Omar Santos
Comments: 7 Pages.

One of the most burning topics in cybersecurity in 2023 will undoubtedly be the compliance with the Software Bill of Materials. Since the US president issued the Executive Order 14028 on Improving the Nation’s Cybersecurity, software developers have prepared and bills are transmitted to vendors, customers, and users, but they don’t know what to do with the reports they are getting. In addition, since software developers have identified the values of the Software Bill of Materials, they have been using the reports extensively. This article presents an estimate of 270 million requests per month, just from form one popular tool to one vulnerability index. This number is expected to double every year and a half. This simple estimate explains the urgency for automating the process. We propose solutions based on artificial intelligence and machine learning, and we base our tools on the existing FAIR principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable). This methodology is supported with a case study research and Grounded theory, for categorising data into axis, and for verifying the values of the tools with experts in the field. We showcase how to create, and share Vulnerability Exploitability eXchange data, and automate the Software Bill of Materials compliance process with AI models and a unified computational framework combining solutions for the following problems: (1) the data utilisation problem, (2) the automation and scaling problem, (3) the naming problem, (4) the alignment problem, (5) the pedigree, and provenance problem, and many other problems that are on the top of mind for many security engineers at present. The uptake of these findings will depend on collaborations with government and industry, and on the availability and the ease of use of automated tools.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The Relationship Between Gravity and Velocity of Light

Authors: Wei Zhang
Comments: 3 Pages.

The classical Newton formula F＝G Mm/r^2 reveals the law of gravity of celestial bodies and everything, but does not explain the cause of gravity. General relativity says that gravity doesn't exist, but is a curvature of space-time. Quantum mechanics suggests the existence of so-called gravitons, but so far none have been found. Quantum mechanics can't explain gravity, relativity can't explain quantum mechanics, and gravity and electromagnetic theory are still not unified. It is pointed out that the gravitational constant G＝1/16πc, π is PI, c is numerical value of velocity of light. The essence of gravity is the fluctuating pressure of particles in a vacuum.This paper is also an attempt to unify the theories of gravity and electromagnetism.
Category: Astrophysics

Photon Polarity

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 21 Pages.

The two polarities of light are due to the electron and positron spins that make up the photon.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

The OPi Transform and Applications

Authors: Oussama Basta
Comments: 3 Pages. First draft

Abstract- The OPi Transform is a mathematical concept that utalizes the equation f(x) = ln|sec(1/(6x^2) + 1/(4x))| and its counterpart f(x) = ln|sin(1/(6x^2) + 1/(4x))|. In both cases, the equation f(x) equals zero (f(x) = 0) for certain values of n that can be represented as m + ik, where m + ik are known as OPi prime numbers. These prime numbers are complex numbers and exhibit unique divisibility properties, being divisible only by themselves, 1, and i. The OPi Transform serves as a generalization of the Laplace transform and is specifically designed to handle nonlinear functions. By exploring the properties and characteristics of OPi prime numbers and employing the OPi Transform, these mathematical concepts offer a deeper understanding of the equations and provide tools for analyzing and manipulating nonlinear functions with complex numbers.
Category: Functions and Analysis

God Words Good Understanding via Letter Theory

Authors: Iman Mosleh
Comments: 67 Pages. In Persian

In this paper i define how holy books have written and how god speaks, i show the evidence of Letter Theory which we had in the article (LetterTheory, Creating and Describing Mathematical Axioms of a System for Letters which Creates Most Simplified Language with Provable Sentences) and i show that Quran use a primary set to expand itself which proves that Quran can has a letter system. I also define programs which theology should follow to define meanings of Quran sentences and to define meanings of its letters.
Category: Religion and Spiritualism

Proving the Erdos-Straus Conjecture

Authors: Oussama Basta
Comments: 2 Pages. A better version, Email included, submitted to a journal

This paper presents a rigorous proof of the Erdős-Straus conjecture, demonstrating that the equation (w^2−F1F2) / F^2 = 1 holds true for all n ≥ 2. The Erdős-Straus conjecture, originally formulated by mathematicians Paul Erdős and Ernst G. Straus, relates to the representation of positive integers as the sum of three reciprocal fractions. Through a series of mathematical derivations and substitution, we prove the conjecture and provide insight into its implications.
Category: Number Theory

Efficient Data Storage and Machine Learning

Authors: Mirzakhmet Syzdykov
Comments: 2 Pages.

In this work we present to reader the novel research on account for efficiency of compression algorithms like Lempel-Ziv Welch and Aho-Corasick trees. We use them to build the proper storage which is called file system in a separate or generalized stream of data. These streams weren’t adopted before for big data to be compressed and queried at a fast pace. We will show further that this is the most efficient model for storing arrays of data on a server end for a final file system. The efficient algorithm for Machine Learning on Aho-Corasick trees is also presented which performs the query in linear time without getting more time on the models like neural networks which are very hardware demanding nowadays. The data structure like trie by Turing Award winner Alfred V. Aho and Margaret J. Corasick remain of big potential in the present time and are subjected to extensive research in this work.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Light Spot Test

Authors: Savinov Sergei
Comments: 2 Pages.

The article relates to atmospheric optics, it describes a field technique for determining the presence in the atmosphere of conditions for the formation of the optical phenomenon of light pillars.
Category: Climate Research

Science and Pseudoscience Falsifiability

Authors: Nicolae Sfetcu
Comments: 8 Pages. (Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with the requirements on the Submission Form - For the last time, please conform!)

The delimitation between science and pseudoscience is part of the more general task of determining which beliefs are epistemologically justified. Standards for demarcation may vary by domain, but several basic principles are universally accepted. Karl Popper proposed falsifiability as an important criterion in distinguishing between science and pseudoscience. He argues that verification and confirmation can play no role in formulating a satisfactory criterion of demarcation. Instead, it proposes that scientific theories be distinguished from non-scientific theories by testable claims that future observations might reveal to be false.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Operational Calculus of Modified Subset Construction

Authors: Mirzakhmet Syzdykov
Comments: 2 Pages.

We present the continuation of studying Extended Regular Expression (ERE) on the view ofmodified subset construction within the overridden operators like intersection, subtraction, and re-written complement. As before we have stated that in this case the complexity has a decreasing nature and tendency. We will give the strict definition of the operational part of this modified subset construction which is due to Rabin and Scott. The complexity of algorithm remains a magnitude less than NP-hard problems for which we have given the strict proof of equivalence in the prior work, so this work continues the studying of the comparable proof for a variety of problems to be computationally complex, however, explainable in terms of unified approach like operational calculus. In this calculus the general points of research are given to the representation of modified subset construction with at least two operands which are to be computed by subsetconstruction and in terms of complexity of the effective algorithm they are computed using modified subset construction.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Artificial Intelligence for Complexity Theory

Authors: Mirzakhmet Syzdykov
Comments: 2 Pages.

In this continued series of work, we present the theoretical and practical results towardsreasoning with modern methods of Artificial Intelligence (AI). We justify our methodology with help of illustrative examples from Computer Science relying on the regular expression matching algorithm and application of the proposed solution for the task of identifying files consistency according to the unknown format. We will also give several notable proofs to the classical theorems which in some sense are coherent to the terms like AI and algorithmic complexity, however, or at least, nowadays they’re solved involving the huge amount of hardware resources and together constitute the new formation in the modern age with help of specifically crafter hardware modules — we’re still about to represent the model in more classical understanding from the point of view of computational complexity, concise reasoning and computer logic within the classical models, theorems and proofs as the base approach of estimating the costs needed to build Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) or Machine Learning (ML) data
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Riemann Hypothesis Proof

Authors: Oussama Basta
Comments: 11 Pages. More detailed and has Latex Equation and fixed spelling mistakes

The Riemann Hypothesis, a famous unsolved problem in mathematics, posits a deep connection between the distribution of prime numbers and the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function. In this study, we investigate the presence of zeros at prime numbers in a specific mathematical expression, $ln (sec (pi cdot nlog(n)))$, and its implications for the Riemann hypothesis. By employing rigorous mathematical analysis, we establish a clear connection between prime numbers, trigonometric functions, and the behavior of the Riemann zeta function. Our findings contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding the Riemann hypothesis and its potential proof, shedding light on the intricate nature of prime numbers and their relationship to fundamental mathematical functions.
Category: Number Theory

The Weak Reaction Mechanics

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 12 Pages.

The weak reaction mechanics is initiated by either an incoming electron neutrino//positron neutrino or electron // positron, and results in a proton changing to a neutron or vice versa. The insight from the Two-Slit experiment is required to give the correct state diagram with both matter and antimatter interacting.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

To Understand The Universe: "Follow the Qi!"

Authors: Lucian M. Ionescu
Comments: 37 Pages.

The role and importance of EM 4-vector potential extends beyond physics theory. It is conceptually connected with the concept of ether, biofield and qi.Instead of finding an "umbrella theory", we would benefit more from understanding all this knowledge as a Network of Theories, with correspondences and translations, and implications ... This is reminiscent of Topos Theory.At experimental and technological level, the Superconducting Quantum Computing area provides a valuable lesson.At the other level of complex biological systems, the theory of chakras, meridians and acupuncture incites to find a common framework, in the sense of Cybernetics, enriched with Quantum Computing (Hardware and software).An contribution to the EPR debate is included: time-sync needs supplemented by space-alignment.In conclusion matter defines and "follows" the QI flow as a "reference frame", in the spirit of General Relativity, but at a gauge theory connection level.
Category: Quantum Physics

Kolmogorov Spaces Which Are Injective

Authors: Ryan J. Buchanan
Comments: 16 Pages.

Let K0,K1 be Kolmogorov spaces, and there be an exact morphism K0 → K1. Assuming K0 to be a "good moduli stack" gives us an exact injection into the category of hyperspace tilings. Here, we explore this link. We supply a healthy dose of background information to get the reader acquainted with the relevant topics in a lightning-round fashion. In the process we touch on automorphisms of spectral sequences.
Category: Topology

Математический анализ дроидов's Method for Proving Lorentz Transformations

Authors: Haijun Liu
Comments: 15 Pages.

This paper introduces the derivation process of Einstein's two methods of proving Lorentz transformation, the simple method and the coordinate method. It is pointed out that the main problem of the simple method is that the original condition is the only zero solution, that is, x, t, x', t'are all 0, in order to conform to the equations set by Einstein. Such an operation has no mathematical or physical meaning. The simple method of proof is not valid. The main problem with the coordinate method is that the partial differential equations listed by Einstein cannot be deduced at all. Of course, the latter calculus doesn't make any sense. The proof method of coordinate method is also not valid. It is pointed out that the main problem of Математический анализ дроидов's proof of Lorentz transformation is that the space-time interval invariance is derived from Lorentz transformation and cannot be applied as a condition. The origin coordinates of the moving system belong to time-like space-time, so the origin coordinates of the moving system (0, t') and the implicated velocity v cannot be solved in the linear equations.
Category: Classical Physics

Part II of the Correction of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 17 Pages. In French

This is the part II of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

Lachesis: Optimization of a Handheld Line Launcher of for Microgravity Utility and Rescue Tasks

Authors: John LaRocco
Comments: 17 Pages. This is more an engineering paper, but one with classical physics as our main method of improvement.

Line launchers are devices that have been used for centuries for maritime rescue operations. The typical implementation is the use of a gun, rocket, or mechanical launcher to hurl a grappling hook or flotation buoy for stranded ships and overboard sailors. Microgravity offers analogous use cases, ranging from microsatellite operations to space debris interception. As such, the Lachesis line launcher is a handheld device that is purpose-built for microgravity applications. After the user pulls the trigger, a laser ignites a smoothbore rocket-propelled projectile which carries a nylon line behind it. Angled threads in the barrel provide the spin and stability that is typically only achieved by conventional rifling. To reduce weight, most components are 3D-printed out of polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable and light plastic. With a total weight of 68 g and a projectile kinetic energy of 0.127 J, the Lachesis line launcher presents an effective, potential option, even with contemporary operational constraints. The design combines several proven principles to demonstrate the viability and use case for an updated line launcher in orbital operations.
Category: Classical Physics

Gravity Extensions Equation and Complex Spacetime

Authors: Tomasz Kobierzycki
Comments: 25 Pages. Final Version

This hypothesis will present a possible extension of Einstein's field equations cite{1}cite{2}cite{3}cite{4} which reduces to his field equation by contractions. Basic concepts such as the description of the inertial system or the definition of a physical observer are discussed. The field equation predicts the existence of exactly four-dimensional space-time, as only four-dimensional space-time has an equal number of unknowns for each term of the equation. The equation itself can be written in two mixed and fully covariant forms:begin{gather}R_{mu sigma u}^ho-frac{1}{2}R_{sigmakappa}g^{kappa ho}g_{mu u}=kappa T_{mu kappa}g^{kappa ho} g_{sigma u}R_{phimu sigma u}-frac{1}{2}R_{sigmaphi} g_{mu u}=kappa T_{mu phi} g_{sigma u }end{gather}This model relates the field of matter to the curvature of space-time in a direct way, if matter is not present at a given point in space, it is simply flat space-time, which makes it a requirement that the momentum energy tensor does not zero in the presence of space-time curvature. In this work, I do not give the exact solutions of the equations, only their derivation and their form in a particular case. Field equation can be reduced to statement about equality between energy momentum tensor and Ricci tensor:begin{gather}R_{mu u} =-2 kappa T_{mu u }end{gather}I will also present a possible way to quantize field equations using complex space-time. This gives the quantum field equation which I can write asbegin{gather}left(R_{phimu sigma u}ight) ^dagger R_{phimu sigma u} = kappa left(R_{phimu sigma u}ight) ^dagger left(kappa T_{mu phi} g_{sigma u }+frac{1}{2}R_{sigmaphi} g_{mu u} ight) end{gather}This equation uses a special complex space-time and generates real invariants by using complex conjugates and transpositions. This removes it from singularity field theory as only normalizable fields that do not possess any kind of infinity are a consequence of this normalization.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

The Weak Reaction

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 28 Pages.

Beta decay is a misinterpretation of the beta reaction because antimatter velocity is opposite of cause-effect velocity.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Attempt to Find Quantum Group

Authors: Alexey Kuzmin
Comments: 18 Pages. (Corrections made by viXra Admin to conform with scholarly norm)

I have tried to find a new compact matrix quantum group within actions on a braided noncommutative quadric associated to a solution of Yang- Baxter equation outside of the 8-vertex model. The result appeared to be isomorphic to the circle group.
Category: Algebra

Superluminal Non-Baryonic Particles in a 3D-Brane Universe Without Equidistance Postulate

Authors: Ruslan Sharipov
Comments: 11 Pages.

The 3D-brane universe model is an alternative non-Einsteinian theory of gravity. The initial version of this theory uses the so-called equidistance postulate. In the current second version of the theory this postulate is omitted. In the present paper non-baryonic particles are studied within the second version of the theory. As an example their revolution around a Schwarzschild black hole is considered.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Letter Theory, Creating and Describing Mathematical Axioms of a System for Letters which Creates Most Simplified Language with Provable Sentences

Authors: Iman Mosleh
Comments: 16 Pages.

This paper is a cross field work between theology, linguistics and mathematics (abstract algebra, topology, set theory, fractal geometry and number theory) which tries to establish a letter system to define word meanings by letter meanings and to restart mathematical theology on this planet which we think had been started by Abraham the prophet.We try to answer this question that can we create a meaning system which every alphabet letter has an specific meaning in, and when we combine them to create words we have a clear system to define every word meaning just by its letters meaning and order of that letters in the word?We will show that if we have a fractal system we can establish a letter system for it.The other question which i try to answer is that can we produce a letter system which provide us provable sentences?
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Phenomenon Caused by the Relative Velocity Between the Observer and the Light Source

Authors: TaekJin Kim, JaeHyeok Chang
Comments: 329 Pages.

This study aims to experimentally verify the principle of constant velocity of light and Galilean relativity. Special relativity states that the velocity of light is constant to all observers, but there has been no study that had experimentally verified the principle of constant velocity of light as the velocity of the light source increases with respect to the observer. This paper aims to experimentally verify the principle of a constant velocity of light by using the velocity of the image data signal sent by Voyager 1 to Earth. The experiment is performed by dividing the distance of the light path between Voyager 1 and Earth by the delay time for the signal from Voyager 1 to reach Earth. If the principle of the velocity of light is correct, the velocity of the signal will be the same as the velocity of light in the vacuum. But if Galilean relativity is correct, the velocity of the signal will be the velocity of light subtracting the velocity of Voyager 1. In this study analyzing the velocity of the signal shows that the velocity of the signal does not match the velocity of light in the vacuum. Furthermore, the velocity of the signal decreases in inverse proportion to the increase in the velocity of Voyager 1, suggesting that the velocity of Voyager 1 affects the velocity of light. This phenomenon can be an example of Galilean relativity being applied to the velocity of light.
Category: Classical Physics

Phenomenon Caused by the Relative Velocity Between the Observer and the Light Source

Authors: TeakJin Kim, JaeHyeok Chang
Comments: 330 Pages.

This study aims to experimentally verify the principle of constant velocity of light and Galilean relativity. Special relativity states that the velocity of light is constant to all observers, but there has been no study that had experimentally verified the principle of constant velocity of light as the velocity of the light source increases with respect to the observer. This paper aims to experimentally verify the principle of a constant velocity of light by using the velocity of the image data signal sent by Voyager 1 to Earth. The experiment is performed by dividing the distance of the light path between Voyager 1 and Earth by the delay time for the signal from Voyager 1 to reach Earth. If the principle of the velocity of light is correct, the velocity of the signal will be the same as the velocity of light in the vacuum. But if Galilean relativity is correct, the velocity of the signal will be the velocity of light subtracting the velocity of Voyager 1. In this study analyzing the velocity of the signal shows that the velocity of the signal does not match the velocity of light in the vacuum. Furthermore, the velocity of the signal decreases in inverse proportion to the increase in the velocity of Voyager 1, suggesting that the velocity of Voyager 1 affects the velocity of light. This phenomenon can be an example of Galilean relativity being applied to the velocity of light.
Category: Classical Physics

The Integral Seen as the (-1)st Derivative and the Half-Integral

Authors: Leonardo Rubino
Comments: 8 Pages.

The integral seen as the (-1)st derivative and the Half-Integral.
Category: General Mathematics

Positive Gravitational Mass Defect

Authors: Radi I. Khrapko
Comments: 5 Pages.

We show that the gravitational mass defect is positive, in contrast to the electromagnetic or nuclear mass defects, which are negative.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Implications of Positive Charge Carriers for Electric Currents, Covalent Bonds and Radioactive Decay

Authors: David Lindsay Johnson
Comments: 7 Pages.

Although an explanation of electric current in terms of the one-way movement of electrons is widely accepted, and represents a reassuringly simple model, there are several problems when it comes to explaining phenomena such as the Hall Effect, electrical currents within semiconductor circuitry and the generation of electric and magnetic fields by electric currents. This article overviews the implications of the existence of real rather than pseudo positive charge carriers to explaining electric currents and related electromagnetic phenomena, and some unexpected implications for covalent bonds and radioactive decay.
Category: Classical Physics

Electron Pairs and the QCD Tetrahedrons

Authors: Rami Rom
Comments: 20 Pages.

We propose that the exotic meson tetraquark introduced in previous papers, may be a condensed pseudo-Goldstone boson in a compact bound state having a tetrahedron geometry. The transition from two free mesons to the tetrahedron state may be seen as the Goldstone theory symmetry breaking. We note that the QFT quantum harmonic oscillator zero-level does not describe the non-empty QCD ground state and that the QCD tetrahedrons may be a better description of the QCD ground state. We assume that electrons and positrons are composite particle charged mesons. We propose that the QCD tetrahedrons play a central role in the electron pairing mechanism in both molecules and superconductors. We suggest that the cosmological redshift may be alternatively, or in addition to, due to the QCD tetrahedron density variations in space and particularly due to its density reduction in the cosmic web great voids.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Cantor Dust and the Gravitational Wave Background

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 12 Pages.

It was recently conjectured that Dark Matter consists of Cantor Dust, a relic cosmic web structure formed by condensation of continuous spacetime dimensions far above the Fermi scale. In this brief analysis we speculate that the Cantor Dust equations may generate the gravitational background recently reported by several international collaborations.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Traveling Salesman Problem in Polynomial Time

Authors: Mirzakhmet Syzdykov
Comments: 1 Page.

We present a polynomial time algorithm for producing the final graph where the minimal Hamiltonian cycle exists. Thus, proving that P = NP.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Relativity

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 35 Pages.

Lorentz formulas are modified to become Lorentz-Pythagorean circles with half for matter and half for antimatter. History of time passage is different from rate of time passage. Varying rates of time passage for an object accumulate to its history of time passage. Redshift of distant objects is an artifact of the observer being in space rotated with respect to the space wherein the photon was created.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Bundle Gerbes and Euclidean Apartments

Authors: Ryan J. Buchanan
Comments: 13 Pages.

We continue from our last session on ��∞-spaces. Here, we discuss apartments as graphs. Theradial completion of the apartments relate to bundle gerbes and also Mochizuki’s ideas of the ��-link.
Category: Topology

On Conway's 99-graph: Parts 1-20

Authors: E. Guseinov
Comments: 95 Pages.

This preprint in Russian reflects some of my results on Conway's 99-graph (G) obtained in 2022-2023 during a research that I did on my own. Here I prove that G is Cartesian indecomposable (Part 10, Theorem 36), G can not be obtained by a group-theoretic generalization of Berlekamp-Seidel's construction (Part 11), G contains no Hamming graph H(4,3) (Part 8, Theorem 28), G is not contained in strongly regular graphs srg(243,22,1,2) (Part 12, Theorem 40), the independence number of G is at least 10 (Part 4, Theorem 21). Parts 12-17, 19 and 20 reflect attempts to prove G may contain H(2,3), i. e. the Paley graph P(9). I'm currently accepting offers to join a graph theoretical research, so you can write me on elmarguseinov@yahoo.com.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

Analytical Models of Plane Turbulent Wall-bounded Flows

Authors: Victor L. Mironov, Sergey V. Mironov
Comments: 21 Pages.

We present the theoretical description of plane turbulent wall-bounded flows based on the previously proposed equations for vortex fluid, which take into account both the longitudinal flow and the vortex tubes rotation. Using the simple model of eddy viscosity we obtain the analytical expressions for mean velocity profiles of steady-state turbulent flows. In particular we consider near-wall boundary layer flow as well as Couette, Poiseuille and combined Couette-Poiseuille flows. In all these cases the calculated velocity profiles are in good agreement with experimental data and results of direct numerical simulations.
Category: Mathematical Physics

A Machine Learning Algorithm for the Quantiu2002cation and Uncertainty Analysis of the Number of Spinal Microglia Trainable in Small and Heterogeneous Datasets

Authors: L. Martino, M. M. Garcia, P. S. Paradas, E. Curbelo
Comments: 25 Pages.

Counting immunopositive cells on biological tissues generally requires either manual annotation or (when available) automatic rough systems, for scanning signal surface and intensity in whole slide imaging. In this work, we tackle the problem of counting microglial cells in lumbar spinal cord cross-sections of rats by omitting cell detection and focusing only on the counting task. Manual cell counting is however a time-consuming task, and additionally entails extensive personnel training. The classic automatic color-based methods roughly inform of total labeled area and intensity (protein quantification) but do not specifically provide information on cell number. Since the images to be analyzed have a high resolution but a huge amount of pixels contains just noise or artifacts, we first perform a preprocessing generating several filtered images. Then, we design an automatic kernel counter that is a non-parametric and non-linear method. The proposed scheme can be easily trained in small datasets since, in its basic version, it relies only on one hyper-parameter. However, being non-parametric and non-linear, the proposed algorithm is flexible enough to express all the information contained in rich and heterogeneous datasets as well (providing the maximum overfit if required). Furthermore, the proposed kernel counter also provides uncertainty estimation of the given prediction, and can directly tackle the case of receiving several expert opinions over the same image. Different numerical experiments with artificial and real datasets show very promising results. Related Matlab code is also provided.
Category: Statistics

Development of Hypersphere World-Universe Model (Narrative) Part VIII: Conclusion

Authors: Vladimir S. Netchitailo
Comments: 68 Pages.

WUM is based on two parameters only: dimensionless Rydberg constant α and time-varying quantity Q . The World’s energy density is proportional to Q^(-1) in all cosmological times. Particles relative energy densities are proportional to α . In WUM we often use well-known physical parameters, keeping in mind that all of them can be expressed through the Basic Units of time t_0 , size a , and energy E_0 . Taking the relative values of physical parameters in terms of the Basic Units we can express all dimensionless parameters of the World through two parameters α and Q in various rational exponents, as well as small integer numbers and π . There are no Fundamental Physical Constants in WUM. In our opinion, constant α and quantity Q should be named "Universe Constant" and "World Parameter" respectively. We do not know that our 3D space is curved. But we know that it is expanding without center of expansion. We introduce the radius of the curvature in the fourth spatial dimension R=a×Q to give an explanation providing insight into the curved nature of the World. In WUM, Local Physics is linked with the large-scale structure of the Hypersphere World through the dimensionless quantity Q . The proposed approach to the fourth spatial dimension agrees with Mach's principle: "Local physical laws are determined by the large-scale structure of the universe ". Applied to WUM, it follows that all parameters of the World depending on Q are a manifestation of the Worlds’ curvature in the fourth spatial dimension. WUM does not attempt to explain all available cosmological data, as that is an impossible feat for any one article. Nor does WUM pretend to have built an all-encompassing theory that can be accepted as is. The Model needs significant further elaboration, but in its present shape, it can already serve as a basis for a new Cosmology proposed by Paul Dirac in 1937. Astronomers have great achievements in investigations of the Solar System that became an Experimental laboratory for astrophysicists to check their theories. We are at the Beginning of a New Era of Astronomy, Cosmology, and Astrophysics! Young physicists should be a part of It. They should concentrate their efforts on the development of a New Cosmology and Classical Physics. I am very excited about the Future of Physics!
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Photon Gas in the Quantized Friedmann Universe

Authors: Rainer Collier
Comments: 6 Pages.

A semiclassical fundamental equation of quantum gravitation is applied to a flat Friedmann universe containing a photon gas. The mean energy of a photon is determined by the method of canonical partition and the classical one-particle state function for the ideal photon gas. For very high temperatures, there is a deviation from the classical equipartition theorem.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Every Convex Pentagon Has Some Vertex Such that the Sum of Distances to the Other Four Vertices is Greater Than Its Perimeter

Authors: Juan Moreno Borrallo
Comments: 4 Pages.

In this paper it is solved the case n = 5 of the problem 1.345 of the Crux Mathematicorum journal, proposed by Paul Erdös and Esther Szekeres in1988. The problem was solved for n ≥ 6 by János Pach and the solution published by the Crux Mathematicorum journal, leaving the case n = 5open to the reader. In september 2021, user23571113 posed this problem at the post https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4243661/prove-thatfor-one-vertex-of-a-convex-pentagon-the-sum-of-distances-to-the-othe/4519514#4519514,and it has finally been solved.
Category: Geometry

The Resolution of the Twin Paradox with Three Frames of Reference - A Mathematical and Physical Report

Authors: Rodrigo de Abreu
Comments: 16 Pages.

We report how we can use a time dilation-like expression eliminating the twin paradox conundrum that standard formulation is unable to accomplish, since erroneously attribute the meaning of a reciprocal relation to the ageing of the twins. This report result from anapproach based on simultaneity and synchronization considering three frames where apreferred frame is Einstein Frame, the frame where the speed of light is isotropic
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Part I of The Selected Collection of Exams of Geodesy and Mathematical Cartography From The German School

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 21 Pages. In French

This is the part I of the correction of the collection of exams of geodesy and mathematical cartography. These exams are from the German school, namely from the Institute of Geodesy of the University of Stuttgart where the eminent professor Erik W. Grafarend (1939-2020) taught geodesy courses and in particular mathematical cartography. This is an opportunity for French-speaking students to share the German methodology.
Category: Geophysics

Tetrons

Authors: John Caywood
Comments: 30 Pages.

Four tetrons make matter and anti-matter. Quarks are tetrahedrons with a tetron at each vertex. There are 4 new quarks: yyz, yyz’, wxy and wxy’. The spin converted into a spin field in a gluon is partially responsible for the strong force and entirely responsible for gravity.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Some 3D-Determinant Properties for Calculating of Cubic-Matrix of Order 2 and Order 3

Authors: Armend Salihu, Orgest Zaka
Comments: 21 Pages.

In this paper we have studied some properties for determinant-calculating for cubic-matrix of order 2 and order 3. These properties are analogous to some properties for determinants of square matrix we have proved and noted that these properties also are applicable (or not in some details) on this concept for cubic-matrix of orders 2 and 3. All results in this paper, are presented in detail during the theorem proofs.
Category: General Mathematics

Limit Velocity: 2c[?]

Authors: Özgen Ersan
Comments: 4 Pages.

Einstein had determined the speed of light for the speed limit and even offered a reductive formula. For the relative speed definition, the speed of light limit applies. In this study, the "hypothetical relativistic" speeds are defined and the limit of this speed is shown to be 2c, and a false notion in cosmic analyses and CERN is clarified.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Biological, Quantum, and Gravitational Holomovement

Authors: D. Chakalov
Comments: 6 Pages.

The biological wave-like holomovement is compared to the quantum and gravitational holomovement created by the arrow of Time. We need a new theory of quantum gravity and gravitational radiation.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

New Improved Classes Converging Towards the Generalized Euler-Mascheroni Constant

Authors: YunJong Kang, HyonChol Kim, JinSong Kim, JinSong Yu
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this paper, we provide new quicker sequences convergent to the generalized Euler-Mascheroni constant, which is a generalization of the Euler-Mascheroni constant.
Category: Functions and Analysis

On New Type of Sequences Convergent to the Euler-Mascheroni Constant

Authors: ChungIl Kim, HyonChol Kim, JinSong Yu
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this paper, we present a new sequence that converges to the Euler constant. We use the Cramer’s rule to determine the best possible constants of this sequence.
Category: Functions and Analysis

A Software Infrastructure for CS Research Dissemination

Authors: Aditya Puri, Aahan Bagga, Manish Arora
Comments: 2 Pages. Licensed under CC By 4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Reading research papers is integral to computer science education, especially at the graduate and senior undergraduate levels. Students, as well as researchers, spend much time understanding research work. While this is an essential part of computer science education, little work has been done to understand, aid, and formally assess research dissemination processes and methodologies. This short paper summarizes work in progress to build a comprehensive software infrastructure for understanding and disseminating research. The tool distributes various media and files with the research paper that aid in understanding the research paper. It enables researchers to provide documents, videos, media, data, code, etc., related to their research work through a single, well-organized, easy-to-use interface. It allows easy organizing of online discussion groups and research talks to help improve understanding. This short paper summarizes the tool's structure. It highlights the use of the software infrastructure to enhance and formally assess the comprehension, evaluation, and synthesis of research for CS graduate and senior undergraduate students.
Category: Education and Didactics

A Proposed Novel Design For A Magnetically Pump Laser

Authors: Chan Rasjid Kah Chew
Comments: 5 Pages.

This short paper describes a proposed new laser using magnetic pumping. The idea is simple. A ruby laser may just be embedding a laser ruby rod inside the primary coil of an a/c transformer together with the iron core. According to contemporary electromagnetism, electrical energy is transmitted by a current-carrying conductor through the magnetic field around it. The author's new aether photoelectricity theory offers a different explanation. The energy flow in current-carrying conductors is through aether apulses , single aether electrical wavelet of one wavelength (the equivalent of the photon). The flow of such photons (microwave around 10 μm) within the conductors is the actual physical mechanism of electrical energy transfer by metal conductors. There is no magnetism in photoelectricity theory. The energy currents entering the primary coil of an a/c transformer would "jump the air gap" into the iron core. The iron core (when active) conducts the flow of photons towards the secondary winding. The photons again jump the air gap and enters into the secondary winding giving rise to the energy current flowing across the long distance electrical power lines towards its destination. In the new magnetically pumped ruby laser, the photon flow across the copper windings and the iron core would have some photons entering into the embedded ruby rod. Such photons may be able to activate lasing of the ruby.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Us[ing] Dark Matter Cherenkov Effect to Explain Why Galaxies For[m]

Authors: Zhi Cheng
Comments: 9 Pages.

Based on the cosmic dark matter fluid model, this paper proposes that the visible matter of the cosmic galaxy is formed by various turbulences of the dark matter fluid. This perturbation may be caused by a huge dark matter entity moving faster than the speed of light, which in turn forms Cherenkov radiation of gravitational waves. This paper estimates the size of this dark matter entity, pointing out that this disturbance will form two regions of high and low pressure in the dark matter fluid. The pressure gradient generated around the turbulence can be estimated using the Fujita formula for tropical cyclones. Computational analysis shows that when it reaches the outer periphery of the galaxy, the pressure gradient becomes small, and the effect of the Corio force is not obvious, so the rotation speed of the galaxy material is mainly affected by the speed of the dark matter fluid itself. This can be confirmed by the fact that the peripheral material rotation speed of all galaxies in the local group is basically the same. In addition, because the dark matter entity may have a certain length, just like a jet that produces a sonic boom, a low-pressure region and a high-pressure region will be generated at both ends of the length, which also means that the same dark matter entity may produce multiple galaxies, and there should be at least two galaxies in multiple galaxies with the same structure. This can be confirmed by some observations. Examples include the Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy (M31), as well as the Hickson Compact Group.
Category: Astrophysics

Study on Classical Electrodynamics Spin

Authors: Radi I. Khrapko
Comments: 28 Pages. A chapter the book "Research Trends and Challenges in Physical Science Vol. 1"

There are two mutually exclusive concepts of the electrodynamics spin. According to the widespread concept, the spin density is proportional to the gradient of the electromagnetic energy density. Therefore, an unlimited plane wave of circular polarization does not contain spin, and a real wave, limited in space, carries all spin at its boundary, separately from energy. In contrast with the gradient theory, according to the original theory, the spin density is proportional to the energy density, and the spin of plane waves is not related to the existence of the boundaries. Within the framework of this theory, we explain the Beth experiment, we calculate: the spin fluxes of plane waves in various situations, a previously unnoticed spin flux in the dipole radiation. The reason for the transition from the initial theory to the gradient theory is discussed.
Category: Classical Physics

Any Formal System That Contains Sets Arithmetic and Rational Numbers is Inconsistent

Authors: Jim Rock
Comments: 1 Page.

Gӧdel proved that any formal system containing arithmetic is incomplete. We show that any such formal system is inconsistent. We establish a collection of nested sets of rational numbers in a descending hierarchy. The sets higher in the descending hierarchy contain element(s) that are not in the sets below them in the hierarchy. Given such a descending set hierarchy, it is easy to develop two arguments that contradict each other. The conclusion of Argument#2 is false. But, Argument#2 is a valid argument.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Lagrangian Approach to Deriving the Gravity Equations in a 3D-Brane Universe Without Equidistance Postulate

Authors: Ruslan Sharipov
Comments: 18 Pages.

The 3D-brane universe model is an alternative non-Einsteinian theory of gravity. The initial version of this theory uses the so-called equidistance postulate. Recently a new version of theory was started which is free of this postulate. In this paper we continue building the new version of theory by applying the Lagrangian approach to it.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Charge Carriers, Electric Currents and Related Electromagnetic Phenomena

Authors: David Lindsay Johnson
Comments: 7 Pages.

Although an explanation of electric current in terms of the one-way movement of electrons is widely accepted, and represents a reassuringly simple model, there are several problems when it comes to explaining phenomena such as the Hall Effect, electrical currents within semiconductor circuitry and the generation of electric and magnetic fields by electric currents. This article considers options that might better and more consistently explain these phenomena and overviews some unexpected implications of these options for covalent bond formation and the cause of radioactive decay.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

The Bouguer-Lambert-Beer Absorption Law: Spectrophotometry in Electrolyte Solutions

Authors: Yu. E. Zevatskiy, S. S. Lysova, T. A. Skripnikova, S. V. Voronab, L. V. Myznikov
Comments: 19 Pages. : Bouguer—Lambert—Beer Absorption Law, UV/Vis spectrophotometry, strong and weak electrolytes, molar absorption coefficient.

The Bouguer—Lambert—Beer absorption law is one of the key laws in spectrophotometric research. Over the last few decades, the researchers have pointed out a number of factors that influence the validity of this law. The paper shows that for the weak electrolytes with the formal linear dependence of the absorbance on the concentration А = f(C) with the correlation coefficient r ≈ 0.99 and more, a major deviation of the experimentally determined molar absorption coefficient εobs from the Bouguer—Lambert—Beer Absorption Law can be observed, and it depends on the concentration of the electrolyte solution.The article presents experimental and calculated data illustrating the reasons that lead to the instability of the molar absorption coefficient εobs ≠ const in the solutions with the concentration of less than 10—3 mol/l. It is suggested that, for precise spectrophotometric measurements, the εobs = f(C) dependance, rather than А = f(C), is the most informative one. First time a theoretical model is offered, that reliably describes the εobs = f(C) dependences for the electrolytes of various strengths, which can be instrumental for the further, more detailed studies and analyses of equilibrium in electrolyte solutions, using the innovative method of concentration spectrophotometry.
Category: Chemistry

Bertrand's Postulate and the Sum of Primes

Authors: Yung Zhao
Comments: 3 Pages.

It is deduced from Bertrand's Postulate that every even integer greater than 4 is the sum of two primes.
Category: Topology

One Piece

Authors: Volker W. Thürey
Comments: 4 Pages.

At first we tile the plane by 8-gons. Then we present a way to tile the plane by k-gons for a every fixed k for all natural numbers k larger than two. We use an infinite number of equal tiles to cover the plane.
Category: Geometry

Nature of Nuclear Binding Force

Authors: Ilgaitis Prūsis, Pēteris Prūsis
Comments: 7 pages, 4 figures

The study proves that the force of attraction between nucleons in the nucleus is caused by the interaction between electrons and protons, which is about 100 times stronger than the repulsive Coulomb forces between protons. Conceptions of Strong and Weak interaction forces are not necessary because all properties of the nucleus can be explained by electric forces. There are only two fundamental interactions: Electromagnetic and Gravitational.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Aether - Aatheron Theory

Authors: Aaron Choi Ramos
Comments: 10 Pages.

This paper presents Aatheron Theory, a novel framework that proposes a fundamental understanding of the universe based on the concept of aatherons. Aatherons are postulated as the elementary constituents of aether, a fundamental medium that permeates all of spacetime. The theory suggests that aether and spacetime are intricately linked, with aether being the substrate for all physical phenomena.In Aatheron Theory, aatherons exhibit pulsing wave-like behavior, and their collective interactions give rise to the fundamental forces and particles observed in nature. The theory provides an explanation for the generation and mediation of electromagnetic fields, the behavior of charged particles, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and the nature of gravity.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Constructive Proof of Kannan’s Theorem Based Upon a Much Simpler Construction

Authors: Sunny Daniels
Comments: 5 Pages. "Complexity Theory" would almost certainly be the best arXiv category for this paper, but there doesn't seem to be any corresponding viXra category.

I appreciate the acknowledgement by Fortnow[1] of my, historically significant, I believe, first ever constructive proof of Kannan’s theorem[2], which I think was acknowledged as "folklore" (I thank Watanabe for this) in Watanabe[3] (I don’t think I currently have access to any university library system so I don’t think I currently have access to the full text of this). If I am not mistaken, I now have a much simpler construction (I thought of this years ago if I remember rightly but was a bit too busy with an IT job unrelated to complexity theory until recently to have the time to publish it) giving a constructive proof of Kannan’s theorem, based upon a particular type of universal Turing machine. The fact that this construction (if I am not mistaken) works is an easy consequence of either my earlier constructive proof[2] or Watanabe’s later proof of the same result as discussed by Fortnow[1]. (I know that my presentations here of this construction and proof are quite sketchy at present; I would appreciate some feedback from others before attempting to write up more detailed versions of them). Also, I think it can be used as the basis of a much simpler constructive proof of Kannan’s theorem: I also discuss this here.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Triedrul Lui Frenet de Ordinul al Doilea

Authors: Cavași Ioan Abel
Comments: 7 Pages.

Bazându-mă pe proprietatea remarcabilă a vectorului lui Darboux de a fi perpendicular pe normală, definesc un nou triedru asociat curbelor din spațiu și demonstrez că și acest triedru satisface formulele lui Frenet. Spre deosebire de lucrările anterioare, unde am folosit pentru simplitate forma trigonometrică a formulelor lui Frenet, în această lucrare construiesc o demonstrație bazată doar pe curbură și torsiune, respectiv, pe darbuzian și lancretian.
Category: Geometry

Traversable Wormholes in (2+1) Dimensions and Gravity’s Rainbow

Authors: Tatsuyuki Sugawa
Comments: 19 Pages.

We investigate the traversable wormholes in (2 + 1) dimensions in the context of Gravity’s Rainbow which may be one of the approaches to quantum gravity. The cases in the presence of cosmological constant and Casimir energy are studied.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Six Measurement Problems of Quantum Mechanics

Authors: F. A. Muler
Comments: 35 Pages.

The notorious ‘measurement problem’ has been roving around quantum mechanics for nearly a century since its inception, and has given rise to a variety of ‘in- terpretations’ of quantum mechanics, which are meant to evade it. We argue that no less than six problems need to be distinguished, and that several of them classify as different types of problems. One of them is what traditionally is called ‘the measurement problem’. Another of them has nothing to do with measurements but is a profound metaphysical problem. We also analyse critically T. Maudlin’s (1995) well-known statement of ‘three measurements problems’, and the clash of the views of H. Brown (1986) and H. Stein (1997) on one of the six meansurement problems. Finally, we summarise a solution to one measurement problem which has been largely ignored but tatictly if not explicitly acknowledged.
Category: Quantum Physics

The IRPL Model of Cosmology

Authors: Vincenzo Peluso
Comments: 59 Pages.

A new cosmological model is proposed that does not require dark energy, yet presents characteristics and trends that are almost comparable to those of the standard model. It differs from the standard model by an "extra path factor" that comes from a central hypothesis and results in an additional distance due to the gravitational radius. This additional distance causes the matter density parameter to rise from 0.5 to 1 from the big bang to the present, which gives rise to a non-zero pressure that drives the present acceleration phase of the universe's expansion. Remarkably, the halving of the density during nucleosynthesis solves the primordial lithium problem, although it introduces a deuterium problem. Finally, the resulting model solves the Hubble tension and the S8 tension, and satisfies all the constraints derived from the most recent accurate measurements of the baryon acoustic oscillation and the angular power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background, despite having one less parameter due to the absence of dark energy. The same hypothesis explains the rotating motion of galaxies on a small scale and produces consequences that are comparable to those of the modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) theory.However, although the proposed model respects the same principles and physics as the standard model, it needs to be reinterpreted within the framework of the more original space of light to appreciate the naturalness of the hypothesis and its profound implications.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Laws of Taxation for Multicellular Organisms: the Economics of Sleep

Authors: Arturo Tozzi
Comments: 12 Pages.

In macro-public finance, the Ramsey rule (RR) concerns variable taxation to maximize social welfare and economic efficiency in a purely competitive monopolistic system. To extract tax revenue with the least loss of utility to the representative individual, RR dictates that optimal, proportionate taxes should be such as to diminish in the same proportion the production of each commodity taxed. The sources of supply that are inelastic, i.e., necessities/utilities, must be taxed more. We hypothesize that the Ramsey’s economical approach might provide a general mechanism to investigate far-flung biological issues, such as preys/predators dynamics, food restriction in ecological niches, local changes in blood flow in rival or complementary organs of multicellular organisms. In particular, RR suggests a quantifiable relationship between the physiological decrease in cortical spike frequency occurring during sleep and energy consumption. Since small decreases in spike frequency during sleep are correlated with large decreases in the amount of consumed ATP, the brain could be considered an inelastic commodity which can be "taxed" more than other organs, allowing the whole organism to spare energy. Shedding light on the energy budget of the central nervous system, RR improves our knowledge of cerebral perfusion during sensory-evoked responses and tissue hypoxia caused by decreased blood flow, suggesting that energy from outside can be provided to counteract brain ischemia. In sum, the economical approach provided by Ramsey stands for a useful methodological tool that could be used in biological contexts to investigate the dynamical correlations among different organs in multicellular organisms.
Category: Mind Science

The Gravitational Constant G May Decrease Between Millimetre-Sized Masses

Authors: Qinghua Cui
Comments: 6 Pages.

The Newtonian gravitational constant G is one of the most important fundamental constants of nature, but still remains resistant to the standard model of physics and disconnected from quantum theory. During the past >100 years, hundreds of values of G have been measured to be ranging from 6.66 to 6.7559×10-11 m3kg-1s-2 using macroscopic masses. More recently, however, a G value ((6.04±0.06)×10-11 m3kg-1s-2) measured using millimetre-sized masses shows significant deviation (by ~9%) from the reference G value, which the authors explained is resulted from ‘the known systematic uncertainties’. However, based on the observation of historical G values and the protocol of the millimetre-sized masses based experiment, we proposed a theory that this deviation is not from ‘systematic uncertainties’ but actually G will rapidly decrease when masses sphere diameter is less than 0.02 meters. More important, the proposed theory matches the measured data very well, suggesting that G may indeed decrease rapidly when mass diameter smaller than millimetres.
Category: Astrophysics

Fine-Tuning a BERT Model for Email Classification: Leveraging Personal Gmail Inbox

Authors: Rafael Costa da Silva
Comments: 8 Pages.

This study aims to develop an effective model for classifying emails as wanted or unwanted using fine-tuned BERT models. The process involved downloading the Gmail inbox through Google Takeout and converting the data to Parquet format. A frequency distribution analysis of From emails was conducted, and the emails were manually classified. A final dataset was created with email subject, classification, and binary labels. The BERT-base-multilingualcased model was fine-tuned using about 10,000 observations for each category. The resulting models achieved an accuracy of 0.9429411764705883. The models are publicly available in Hugging Face's model repository
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Dimensional Regularization and Fractal Spacetime

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 20 Pages.

This report expands on the preprint "Dimensional Regularization as Mass Generating Mechanism", posted at the following sites:https://doi.org/10.32388/DW6ZZS,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370670747
Category: Mathematical Physics

Generation Mechanism for the Sun's Poloidal Magnetic Field

Authors: Dmitry G. Kiryan, George V. Kiryan
Comments: 16 Pages. 10 Figures, 2 Tables

There was established a sequence of physical processes forming the cause-and-effect relationship between the observed alternating poloidal magnetic field of the Sun and a non-electromagnetic factor external to the Sun. It has been shown that nonuniformity of the Sun's orbital motion about the Solar system barycenter promotes emergence inside the Sun of the conditions for generation of the alternating poloidal component of the Sun's magnetosphere having a period of about 20 years. Keywords: Sun's poloidal magnetic field, inversion, flip, Jupiter, Saturn.
Category: Classical Physics

Optimal Leg Height of Landing Legs to Reduce Risk of Damage from Regolith Ejecta by Retrorocket Exhausts

Authors: Johan J. Karukayil
Comments: 8 Pages.

Over the past decade, there has been a rapid increase in rocket launches. 2022 was a record-breaking year for the aerospace industry, with 180 successful rocket launches into orbit, 44 more than the previous year.[2] Reducing as many risks as possible is essential as interplanetary rocket launches and reusable booster landings become more frequent. One such risk occurs when a rocket/booster lands. During the landing process, the retrorockets spray debris from the loose ground, which may damage the rocket/landing module. Retrorockets are rocket engines that provide a thrust opposing the spacecraft’s motion, causing it to decelerate. This paper studies the effect of landing leg height on ejecta velocity, the volume of debris ejected, and ground surface temperature change. Four landing leg heights were tested with an Estes® E-16 consumer model rocket motor: 0 mm, 50 mm, 75 mm, and 100 mm. The experiment suggests that the optimal height above the ground’s surface for a simulated landing module based on the volume and velocity of the ejecta is 50 mm. Landing legs that elevate a model rocket this height create an average crater volume of 610.5 mL and a max crater diameter of 10.34 cm. After determining the optimal height, a landing leg system was developed. This system was attached to an Aerodactyl TS® model rocket and utilized landing legs that elevated the rocket to a height of 50 mm above the ground at landing.
Category: Classical Physics

Cracking the Enigma of Neutrino

Authors: Kiyoung Kim
Comments: 17 Pages.

Neutrinos, which have been known as elusive ghost-particles, are electrically neutral coming out only in weak interactions, and eccentrically only left-handed neutrinos have been observed. More surprisingly, it has been known that flavors of neutrinos, such as electron, muon, and tau neutrinos, are changed in their propagations, which is known as neutrino oscillation. The peculiarities of neutrinos such as parity violation in weak interaction and neutrino flavor oscillation are reviewed whether those unconventional characters of neutrinos should be accepted just because of the seemingly undeniable physical evidences in phenomenology. For those eccentric neutrino properties in weak interaction, alternatively but surely we can find comprehensive explanations in 4-D complex space.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Gravitational Density $omega = 3/10$ and Boson Density $omega^2/2$ in the Perfect Cosmology

Authors: Francis M. Sanchez
Comments: 3 Pages.

Perfect cosmology (steady-state) is characterized by a single parameter, implying the critical condition with an invariant Hubble radius. This implies that the non-relativistic Universe gravitational energy is $Omega Mc^2$, with $ Omega = 3/10$, whose quantum form implies the baryon density $Omega^2/2 = 0.045$. Thus, the dark matter could be interpretated as an out of phase matter-antimatter oscillation.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

[T]here Can Be No Perfect Odd Numbers

Authors: Giovanni Di Savino
Comments: 2 Pages.

A perfect number is a natural number which is equal to the sum of its integer divisors including 1 and excluding itself, but a number n is also perfect in which the sum of its divisors including 1 and itself is equal to 2n. The natural numbers are infinite, for each of them there is a successor number and if it will never be possible to know how many, among the natural numbers, there can be perfect numbers, it is possible to know why there are even perfect numbers and there cannot be odd perfect numbers .The perfect number equal to 2n recalls a measurement technique, used 35,000 years ago when numbers were not known and which is similar to today's one-to-one correspondence. The correspondence of years ago consisted in associating each element of a set A with an element of set B; a concrete correspondence today is: "in a shirt the A.soles can be associated with the B.brass". Years ago, not knowing how to count, any set A was made to correspond to a set B in order to obtain that any difference between the two sets was the confirmation or not that the two sets were equal.
Category: Number Theory

Inhomogeneous Distribution of the Universe’s Matter Density as a Physical Basis for MOND’s Acceleration a0

Authors: Antonio Francino, Gabriel Simón
Comments: 16 Pages. Slightly corrected and improved version, with some necessary references added. Main argument and conclusions unaltered.

One of the most effective theories for dark matter is Milgrom’s Modified Newtonian Dynamics, where a modified law of gravity based on a fixed acceleration scale a0 is postulated that provides a correct description of the gravitational fields in galaxies. However, the significance of a0 is unknown, and the whole theory is generally viewed as a phenomenological description of the observations. Based on Newton’s gravitational law as applied to a uniform continuous mass we posit a non-homogeneous distribution of mass at cosmological scales that would give rise to a constant acceleration that agrees with MOND’s a0. The implications for MOND as a viable theory of dark matter and for the problem of dark energy are discussed.
Category: Astrophysics

Numeric Representation and the Boundary of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Authors: Donald G. Palmer
Comments: 5 Pages. Presented at the Joint Mathematics Meeting in Baltimore, MD January, 17, 2019

Being so basic to mathematics, numeric representational systems touch many areas of the discipline. Numeric systems could be said to lie on the boundary of pure and applied mathematics, providing the means to apply mathematics to the real world and to define how we manipulate numbers. The numeric system we use today is the decimal numeric system, which is a key system underlying current science and technology. This system is over one thousand years old, predating much of our science and technology. It can be argued that this mathematical tool, missing for the ancients, prevented them from attaining technology close to ours.In an analogous manner, discovering an expanded, more powerful numeric system would affect both sides of the pure/applied boundary. Being so basic to measurements, expanding the power of our numeric system could expand what we are able to measure, and hence provide a quantum leap in many areas of science. Being so basic to the concept of number, the expansion could provide new areas for theoretic mathematical investigation, potentially expanding what we think of as a number.This paper will consider characteristics of numeric representation and the potential for expanding our current systems, considering directions to work on and where this might lead.
Category: General Mathematics

Early Galaxy Formation with AIV

Authors: Scott S. Neal
Comments: 9 Pages.

With the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), we are now able to make observations earlier into the history of galaxy formation for our Universe. Those observations have shown us that the current models of galaxy formation based on Dark Matter do not seem to be correct. Galaxies have formed much earlier than the current models would predict. These models use the conventional ‘pulling’ gravitational forces of both conventional matter and Dark Matter to predict how soon galaxies would form during the evolution of our Universe. This paper explores an alternative theory of Dark Matter to explain the earlier formation of our galaxies. This alternative theory suggests that antihydrogen atoms in the cosmic voids provide a ‘pushing’ force on all matter around them. This paper shows how, when the ‘pulling’ forces from matter and ‘pushing’ forces from antimatter are combined, they produce the more rapid formation of stars and galaxies.Keywords — AIV, Antimatter, ASPIRE, CEERS, Dark Matter, Galaxy Formation, JWST, JD1, Voids
Category: Astrophysics

Relative and Absolute Stellar Aberration

Authors: Miloš Čojanović
Comments: 13 Pages. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

If we talk about Stellar Aberration, then we think of the form of Stellar Aberration that was first discovered and explained by Bradley. In addition to Bradley's Stellar Aberration, which can also be defined as Relative Stellar Aberration, we will define Absolute Stellar Aberration based on just one measurement. Here after we will refer to the Absolute Stellar Aberration as "ASA". We will try to explain in a few words why it is necessary to measure and interpret Stellar Aberration in this way. Suppose we performed two measurements of the Doppler Effect within six months. If we don't know the results of those measurements, but only difference between them, then we cannot determine the radial velocities with which the observer moves with respect to the star. We will prove that similar reasoning can be applied in the case of Stellar Aberration as defined by Bradley. Knowing only the difference between the two measurements of the Stellar Aberration, we are not able to determine the transverse velocities the observer moves with respect to the line of sight, but only their difference. Using the results of "ASA" measurements, we will determine a Stationary Frame of Reference and after that derive formulas for Relative and Absolute Stellar Aberration.
Category: Astrophysics

Gravity Probe B with Special Relativity of Fields

Authors: Enrique Domínguez Pinos
Comments: 21 Pages. In spanish

GPB experiment is analyzed from special relativity of fields point of view
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Micro Interpretation for the Generation of Gravity: The Consistent Spin Direction of Clustered Quarks in Two Objects

Authors: Wei Guo
Comments: 11 Pages.

Today, although two main physical theories of Newton gravity law and General Relativity could mathematically measure gravity, the scientific community has still not figured out how gravity is generated at the micro perspective. Instead of seeking some particle that serves as the medium to spread the gravity, we argue the underlying mechanism of gravity is similar to another contactless force of magnetic force. The difference lies in the fact that the key particle which plays the dominant role in generating gravity is the spin direction of clustered quarks rather than electrons.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A New Model Suggesting a Mass Difference Between Electron and Positron at 10 ppb

Authors: Stefan Israelsson
Comments: 18 Pages. Reworked paper, better category.

Background/Objectives: The primary objective is to investigate a new theoreticalmodel approach about fundamental particles. Especially the electron and positron is con-sidered. The model utilizing the concept of energy density limits and find an acceptableinterpretation of a speed of light reference frame. Due to it’s consistent nature this enableus to implement these limits without breaking Lorentz’s invariance. This new model em-ploys mass-less current loops at the speed of light, to construct a candidate for a stable,self-contained system, which can be perceived as either an electron or positron, dependingon its configuration.Methods: This is a pure theoretical work where all figures was generated by LaTeXconstructs to illustrate the concepts. However there are referenced measurement results thatare important for the discussion. The mathematics is on a basic level, although the paperis dense with deductions and formulas. Only calculus and general mathematical maturity isneeded as well as knowledge about special relativity, electromagnetism and some basic atomand particle physics.Results: We evaluate the resultant angular momentum and derive a formula that alignswith Bohr’s renowned assumption about angular momentum in his atomic model. Thismethod not only provides insights into the enigmatic number 137 in physics but also suggestsa potential discrepancy between the masses of the electron and positron, with a relativeerror of 10 ppm in the measurement. This difference is too subtle for existing measurementtechniques.Conclusions: The main result in this paper are a model that basis its approach using theelectromagnetic theory and deduces stable constellations, that resembles particles, withinthis model. This theory does introduce the controversial prediction that the particle andantiparticle mass differ using a deduction of a formula for the mass. It is also quite possible aswe quantize the difference, that this prediction can be clarified by forthcoming measurementprojects. Also we deduced a couple of soundness feature of the model, such as deriving theBohr’s condition for angular momentum in his atomic model and explain how this can beused to deduce the actual measured angular momentum. Also the invariance of angularmomentum and charge is proven as a result of the model.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Grand Unified Theory by the Einstein’s Equation Using as Metric the Four Dimensional Sphere

Authors: Kay Zum Felde
Comments: 5 Pages.

We critically review the Standard Model. We were coming to the conclusion, that the principal structure of the Standard Model is correct. But we found that the group structure of photons, electromagnetism, strong interaction, gravition and weak interaction are exactly fit into the structure of the symmetry group S^4 of order or dimension is four. We are able to incorporate electromagnetism and gravitation into Einstein’s equation.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Euler-Gamma Function

Authors: Edgar Valdebenito
Comments: 2 Pages.

The gamma function was first introduced by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in his goal to generalize the factorial to non integer values.
Category: Functions and Analysis

General Conjecture on the Optimal Covering Trails in a K-Dimensional Cubic Lattice

Authors: Marco Ripà
Comments: 7 Pages.

We introduce a general conjecture involving minimum-link covering trails for any given k-dimensional grid n × n × ··· × n, belonging to the cubic lattice ℕ^k. In detail, if n is above two, we hypothesize that the minimal link length of any covering trail, for the above-mentioned set of n^k points in the Euclidean space ℝ^k, is equal to h(n, k) = (n^k − 1)/(n − 1) + c·(n − 3), where c = k − 1 iff h(4, 3) = 23, c = 1 iff h(4, 3) = 22, or even c = 0 iff h(4, 3) = 21.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

No Singularities in Schwarzschild Black Hole and Big Bang

Authors: Yongrong Bao
Comments: 5 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Author name on the form and in the article in pdf must match!)

We prove no singularities in Schwarzschild black hole (SBH) and Big Bang considering the quantum effect. We find the equation of gravitational energy density inside SBH; derive that the gravitational energy density is proportional to the square effective temperature far from the event horizon in SBH interior, whether the gravitational fields of SBH are Coulomb-like or wave-like; obtain their entropic density is direct proportion with the effective temperature. Then we assume that the center of SBH and Big Bang being in the minimum entropy state, which value is equal to the Boltzmann constant; propose the SBH uncertainty relation (UR) and Big Bang UR by the generalized relational expression (GRE) and prove, which suggest no singularity in them.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Comparative Analysis for Predicting Shelf life of Fruits Using Advanced Deep Learning Approaches

Authors: Sanath Shenoy, Radhika Mishra, Ruchi Chaturvedi, Krushnakant Bhagwat
Comments: 7 Pages.

The food industry aims to reduce food waste andensure the delivery of fresh produce to consumers, making it crucial to predict fruit shelf life accurately. Traditional approaches rely on expensive and time-consuming laboratory testing, which often involves destructive methods. However,recent studies suggested that advanced deep learning techniques can predict fruit shelf life accurately and efficiently. This paper presents a novel approach to predicting fruit shelflife using deep learning models. The study focuses on the application of these advanced techniques to forecast the shelf life of bananas, which can contribute significantly to achievingthe food industry's objective.The study tries to develop accurate and efficient models that could predict the maturity of bananas, based on their average shelf-life and appearance. In order toachieve this objective, two object detection algorithms—Faster R-CNN and You Only Look Once (YOLO) are used and their performance is compared in the present research. The dataset has been created by collecting images of the life cycle of bananas and segregating them based on their maturity. Various preprocessing and augmentation techniques have been applied to enhance the features of the training dataset which is useful to get better accuracy. The algorithms were trained on the family of Cavendish Bananas dataset and were able to predict the shelf life ofbananas with better training accuracy. The YOLO algorithm which is known for efficiency is compared with Faster R-CNN well known for identifying very fine features. This studydemonstrates the potential of deep learning algorithms in predicting the shelf life of bananas and can be extended to different fruits.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Principle of Particle Identity

Authors: Bezverkhniy Volodymyr Dmytrovych
Comments: 6 Pages.

Using only classical interactions between electrons and atomic nuclei, it is impossible to correctly describe a chemical bond. But, applying the principle of particle identity, quantum mechanics can formally explain the energy of a chemical bond by the delocalization of electrons (exchange energy). The bond electrons are delocalized, equivalent and indistinguishable, and as a consequence, according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, fundamentally have no position. That is, when a chemical bond is formed, there are no individual electrons and cannot be, which is due to the quantum nature of the bond.
Category: Chemistry

The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Principle of Particle Identity (in Russian)

Authors: Bezverkhniy Volodymyr Dmytrovych
Comments: 7 Pages.

Using only classical interactions between electrons and atomic nuclei, it is impossible to correctly describe a chemical bond. But, applying the principle of particle identity, quantum mechanics can formally explain the energy of a chemical bond by the delocalization of electrons (exchange energy). The bond electrons are delocalized, equivalent and indistinguishable, and as a consequence, according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, fundamentally have no position. That is, when a chemical bond is formed, there are no individual electrons and cannot be, which is due to the quantum nature of the bond.Используя только классические взаимодействия между электронами и ядрами атомов, корректно описать химическую связь невозможно. Но, применяя принцип тождественности частиц, квантовая механика формально может объяснить энергию химической связи, делокализацией электронов (обменная энергия). Электроны связи делокализованны, эквивалентны и неразличимы, и как следствие, согласно принципу неопределенности Гейзенберга, принципиально не имеют никакого положения. То есть, при образовании химической связи, индивидуальных электронов нет и быть не может, что обусловлено квантовой природой связи.
Category: Chemistry

Displays for Teichmüller Spaces

Authors: Ryan J. Buchanan
Comments: 14 Pages.

We introduce here a new notion of polarity for hyperbolic and complex analytic spaces. We describe compasses and arithmetic displays for said spaces.
Category: Topology

I-th Derivative and Half-Derivative of X

Authors: Leonardo Rubino
Comments: 14 Pages.

Here is a proof of the value of the i-th derivative of x, as well as that of the half-derivative of x.
Category: General Mathematics