All Submission Categories

Solution for the Density Parameter of Dark Energy

Authors: Stergios Pellis
Comments: 26 Pages. Published in SSRN Electronic Journal http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4406279 Distributed in Astronomy & Astrophysics eJournal Vol 5, Issue 13, April 19, 2023 Distributed in Cosmology & Large-Scale Structure eJournal Vol 5, Issue 15, April 26, 2023

In this paper we will propose a possible solution for the density parameter of dark energy. From the dimensionless unification of the fundamental interactions will be presended the formulas for the density parameter of dark energy. Also we will show the geometric representation of the density parameter for dark energy and the geometric representation of the relationship between the de Sitter radius and the Hubble length.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Terms Constructed by the "Diagonal Method" Are Unclosed Terms

Authors: Jincheng Zhang
Comments: 9 Pages.

Nature of a proposition constructed by diagonal method of proof is a paradox, so it is an unclosed term and an extra-field proposition. There are two kinds of infinities, standard infinity and non-standard infinity, and we will explore the diagonal problem in each of the two kinds of infinities below.We conclude that: (1) In standard infinity, Cantor's diagonal number can metamorphose into real number and the contradiction vanishes. (2) In nonstandard infinity, Cantor's diagonal numbers become hyperreal number . Essentially both are unclosed terms of the calculation.Therefore, Cantor's diagonal method proves that "the real numbers are not countable" is wrong.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Calculating the Size of any Stable Particle

Authors: Mark Anthony Tierno
Comments: 6 Pages.

This article builds upon my first paper, "Relation of the Internal Structure of the Photon with Field and Charge" (https://vixra.org/abs/2301.0148), and assumes that one has read that first; any references involving that paper will be referred to as "my first paper". Using the theories presented therein, this paper will determine a formula that can be used to calculate the radius of any given stable particle; i.e., protons and electrons, with the currently known radius of the proton to be used as a comparison. Following that will be provided an estimate as to the maximum number of photons that a particle can hold before its radius would expand. Finally, a fallout from all this will be the realization of a probable geometric origin for ‘e’, much like we have one for π.
Category: Classical Physics

On the Coupling Constant 3/2 of Traditional Kinetic Theory of Gases Pv=e=3/2k_bt

Authors: Tai-Choon Yoon
Comments: 3 Pages.

The traditional kinetic theory of gases, which states that PV=E=3/2k_BT, should be corrected to PV=E=k_BT, as the process that leads to the coupling constants of 3 and 1/2 has changed and is no longer necessary.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Successiveness and Operadicity

Authors: Ryan J. Buchanan
Comments: 4 Pages.

Succession is placed ie orderings are consideredmber rings. Linear-style orderings are considered as operads which split fields by introducing locally transcendental numbers that perfectly close their ancestors by introducing gaps.
Category: Number Theory

The Theory of Intrinsic Energy

Authors: Donald H. MacAdam
Comments: 81 Pages.

The assumption that all energy is kinetic has resulted in important phenomena with unknown mechanisms: stellar rotation curves, increase in mass with increase in velocity, constancy of photon velocity, and the levitation, suspension and pinning of superconducting disks. In addition, the reason for the existence of the fine structure constant is unknown, the value of the proton-electron mass ratio is unexplained, the spectra of atoms larger than hydrogen cannot be derived, and there is no proof or disproof of cosmic inflation. All of the above issues are resolved by the existence of intrinsic energy.
Category: Classical Physics

High-Energy Particle Physics the Helmholtzian Factorization Methodology

Authors: Claude Michael Cassano
Comments: 12 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

Quantum field theory flows from the Helmholtzian factorization approach, including the weak interaction. The Helmholtzian factorization approach (including the Covariant) yields unification and more without tricks or obfuscations. The Helmholtzian factorization approach is superior to the gauge theory/combined symmetry group/symmetry breaking/Higgs mechanism patchwork quilt approach (which doesn't even include gravitation).
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

A Semi-Automatic Method for Document Classification in the Shipping Industry

Authors: Narayanan Arvind
Comments: 4 Pages. Proceedings of Neptune's conference 2023, Samudramanthan, IIT Kharagpur

In the shipping industry, document classificationplays a crucial role in ensuring that the necessary documents are properly identified and processed for customs clearance. OCR technology is being used to automate the process of documentclassification, which involves identifying important documents such as Commercial Invoices, Packing Lists, Export/Import Customs Declarations, Bills of Lading, Sea Waybills, Certificates, Air or Rail Waybills, Arrival Notices, Certificate of Origin,Importer Security Filings, and Letters of Credit. By using OCR technology, the shipping industry can improve accuracy and efficiency in document classification and streamline the customs clearance process. The aim of this study is to build a robust document classification system based on keyword frequencies. The research is carried out by analyzing "Contract-Breach" law documents available with IN-D. The documents were collected by scraping the Singapore Government Judiciary website. The database developed has 250"Contract-Breach" documents. These documentsare splitted to generate 200 training documents and 50 test documents. A semi-automatic approach is used to select keyword vectors for documentclassification. The accuracy of the reported modelis 92.00 %.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Multi-folds in Yang Mills Feynman Diagrams

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 21 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/.

In a multi-fold universe, gravity emerges from Entanglement through the multi-fold mechanisms. As a result, gravity-like effects appear in between entangled particles, whether they be real or virtual. Long range, massless gravity results from entanglement of massless virtual particles. Entanglement of massive virtual particles leads to massive gravity contributions at very smalls scales. All these recover General Relativity (GR) at large scales, and semi-classical models remain valid till smaller scale than usually expected. Gravity can therefore be added to the Standard Model resulting into what we define as SMG. In QFTs, scattering amplitudes are perturbatively computed using Feynman diagrams. Recent work showed that classical scattering of massive or charged particles, or objects, and resulting wave radiation, are classically fully characterized by up to the five-point tree-level diagrams. All the loop and other order diagrams contribute quantum corrections. We explain such results in multi-fold universes. Furthermore, doing so we detail how gravitons are unphysical quasi-particles, a key difference with gauge interactions that also results into gravity QFT/EFT non renormalizability. Yang Mills theory and gravity have many commonalities, including the double copy behavior in scattering amplitude. Besides relating this behavior to Kaluza Klein, and space time matter induction, the paper shows not only how double copy is compatible with multi-fold mechanisms, but also argues that it implies the multi-fold emergence of gravity from (virtual) entangled particle pairs, which is at the core of the multi-fold mechanisms. Furthermore, gravity contains Yang Mills, as implication of its square root of scattering amplitudes. Also, it explains why one therefore also can derive, under the right conditions, Yang Mills from the Hilbert Einstein action, as are encountered by superstrings when adding a conformance condition. As announced by the title, we show how these results imply that GR is obtained, at the scale of the SM, from the kinematics of SM, i.e., from Yang Mills, (massless) particles. It validates one of the a priori arbitrarily imposed axiom of the multi-fold theory, and provides a microscopic explanation for the double copy behavior, which so far is unjustified in conventional QFT or superstrings. This way, the paper explains how Yang Mills contains gravity / GR, and, conversely, quantum gravity / GR contains Yang Mills, so that the E/G conjecture is satisfied. A microscopic mechanism to explain the Ultimate Unification (UU) is also discussed.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Natural Sets and the Axiom of Comprehension

Authors: Albert Henrik Preiser
Comments: 12 Pages.

A natural set never contains itself. The existence or non-existence of a natural set is decided using a modified "Axiom of Comprehension". This modified axiom keeps everything that contains itself out of set formation. This also includes the property of not containing itself, although every natural set has this property. If it were possible to form a set with this property, then the antinomy "contains itself" and "does not contain itself", named after Bertrand Russell, would apply to this set. While this is paradoxical, it is still a corollary when trying to form a set with the property "does not contain itself". The modified "Axiom of Comprehension" takes this fact into account and decides on the non-existence of a set to be formed with the property "does not contain itself" because it would have the property "contains itself". There can therefore be no antinomy like that of Bertrand Russell in the case of natural sets. The modified "Axiom of Comprehension" states that a natural set does not contain itself. This means that the set to be formed cannot have the property or condition required for the set to be formed. This, together with the elimination of Russell's antinomy, provides an existence criterion for natural sets. With this, essential statements about the natural sets can be proved.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Hamiltonian Chaos and the Fractal Topology of Spacetime (Part 1)

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 15 Pages.

Fractals and multifractals are self-similar structures endowed with continuous dimensions. This tutorial traces the origins of fractal spacetime to the universal features of Hamiltonian chaos, conjectured to develop far above the Fermi scale. A representative signature of Hamiltonian chaos is the fragmentation of phase-space into islands of stability embedded within ergodic layers. Fractal topology of Hamiltonian chaos may account for the multiply connected structure of the large-scale Universe, hinted by recent cosmological data. These observations raise the possibility that gravitational physics and Quantum Field Theory emerge from the chaotic regime of the early Universe.
Category: Mathematical Physics

[A Note Mathematician] Brook Taylor

Authors: Edgar Valdebenito
Comments: 11 Pages.

Brook Taylor was an English mathematician, invented integration by parts, and discovered the celebrated formula known as Taylor's expansion.
Category: Functions and Analysis

14N Needles in the Haystack for Near Ambient Superconductivity: Possible 15N Depletion at Lower Temperatures and Pressures

Authors: Reginald B. Little
Comments: 17 Pages. The author realized the uniqueness of hydrogen as pressure dependent nonmetal and metal properties, so he revised the predicted isotope effect of 14N and 15N from his prior submission viXra:2303.0135 on March 21, 2023.

The author has previously noted the effects of stable isotopes having different nuclear magnetic moments on chemistry, catalysis, biochemistry, thermodynamics, optics, superconductivity and more [1]. In this controversy surrounding reported room temperature superconductivity at near ambient pressures by nitrogen doped lutetium hydride, the author hopes to convince and reason that the different synthesis conditions of the original work of Dias and coworkers [2] at low temperature, mild pressures, diamond anvil cell compression and prolong annealing may lead to selective doping of the lutetium hydride by 14N. The later attempted replication of Dias and coworkers by Hai-hu Wen and coworkers [3] may have caused different outcomes as Hai-hu Wen and coworkers appeared to try Dias work and then switched to a different synthetic method whereby Wen and coworkers instead applied high pressures and high temperatures to the reacting hydrogen, nitrogen and lutetium to produce a nitrogen doped lutetium hydride with similar lattice structure as the originally reported by Dias and coworkers [2] but lacking observed superconductivity and evidence of superconductivity by diamagnetism. The author here by his theory notes the possibility that the different later high pressure, high temperature synthesis by Wen and coworkers doped their sample with 15N rather than 14N as originally enriched in Dias’s sample. Thereby the author notes by his theory [1] that whereas 14N doped lutetium hydride manifests higher superconductivity due to its positive nuclear magnetic moment (NMM), the 15N doped lutetium hydride of Wen and coworker should not manifest superconductivity at the higher temperatures due to its positive NMM. Thereby the authors’ theory gives account of both Dias’ and Wen’s experiments.
Category: Condensed Matter

Mechanical-Electric Coupling in Metals

Authors: Yuanjie Huang
Comments: 41 Pages.

In metal physics, the free-electron model and the related Fermi-Dirac distribution were usually utilized to investigate multi-physical properties of metals. However, they neglected the important mechanical-electric coupling (MEC), and therefore some longstanding physical problems such as the positive Seebeck coefficients of some monovalent metals and the physical origin of charge density wave (CDW) gap may be difficult to solve. In the work, the MEC in metals was investigated. The MEC may lead to a single-electron model which can offer a simple way of interpreting the electron heat capacity, the Pauli magnetic susceptibility, the electrical conductivity and the electron thermal conductivity of the metals. It may also indicate that the heavy-fermion characteristics of the heavy-fermion systems may originate from the physical picture that the electron chemical potential intersects the narrow conduction f-electron band and the correlation effects among heavy-fermions may be weak, as is in contrary to the conventional viewpoint. Furthermore, it was found that the MEC can not only give the right sign of Seebeck coefficients of the monovalent metals but also give the physical origin of the CDW gap, which are in agreement with experimental results. Overall, the MEC may be important for the metals and it should be taken into account seriously for investigating the multi-physical properties of the metals.
Category: Condensed Matter

New Approaches to the Generation of Induced Current

Authors: Xia Cao
Comments: 8 Pages.

Electromagnetic induction is that an induced current and an induced electromotive force will be generated in the closed circuit coil when a part of the coil cuts the magnetic field line. Magnets are essential in during the process. In this paper, we found that the induced current and induced electromotive force can be still generated in the closed circuit coil without external magnets. In addition, when light, heat and wind energy are applied, the induced current and induced electromotive force generated in the coil will increase. This research result further proves the Collision Electro—Magnetic Theory (CEMT) that we put forward earlier. Air movement will be accelerated by light, heating or wind blowing, and the increase of collision strength and collision frequency will lead to the increase of an electromagnetic field strength, thereby resulting in the increasing of the induced current and induced electromotive force. This is a completely innovative approach to energy harvesting, which opens up new possibilities for non-electromagnetic induction. Just like the invention of electromagnetic induction by Faraday in 1831, the induced current is in the microampere level. But it is a milestone progression.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Review of the Multi-fold Theory Principles and the SM_G

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 32 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation

The paper explains sometimes in simplified terms, sometimes in more details the principles that motivate and are behind the Multi-fold theory. It provides an overview of some of the key results in particular the SMG, i.e., the Standard Model with gravity effects non-negligible at its scales.In a multi-fold universe, gravity emerges from entanglement through the multi-fold mechanisms. As a result, gravity-like effects appear in between entangled particles, whether they be real or virtual. Long range, massless gravity results from entanglement of massless virtual particles. Entanglement of massive virtual particles leads to massive gravity contributions at very smalls scales. Multi-folds mechanisms also result into a spacetime that is discrete, with a random walk fractal structure, and non-commutative geometry, which is Lorentz invariant, and where spacetime nodes, and particles, can be modeled with microscopic black holes. All these recover General Relativity (GR) at large scales and semi-classical model remain valid till smaller scale than usually expected. Gravity can therefore be added to the Standard Model (SM) resulting into what we define as SMG. This can contribute to resolving several open issues with the Standard Model without new Physics other than gravity. These considerations hint at an even stronger relationship between gravity and the Standard Model.Recent work shows that the multi-fold theory can be encountered in GR at Plank scales, in spacetime quantization starting from the Hilbert Einstein action, and in the equivalence principle of suitable quantum reference frames in relational quantum physics. Conversely, GR and Quantum physics, including path integrals, the Born rule, and wave functions, can be recovered through different paths from multi-fold spacetime reconstruction and the W-type multi-fold hypothesis. The main principles of the multi-fold theory are that while in GR spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve, when adding Quantum Physics with entanglement, we also impose a non-local wave function behavior, and Lorentz invariance imposes no supra-luminosity. As a result, gravity is the result of spacetime going out of its way, and contorting , to support such requirements, as demanded by the content of the universe. The multi-fold theory is about explaining and reconciling this, and all the consequences of it. These include the SMG, i.e., the Standard Model where gravity is non-negligible at its scales, multi-fold dark matter and energy, the E/G factual conjecture. The SMG potentially explains many problems with the SM.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A Probabilistic Proof of Goldbach's Conjecture

Authors: Huhnkie Lee
Comments: 36 Pages.

Probabilistic Proof of Goldbach's Conjecture is presented. Philosophical, political, and historical narratives tangentially related to Goldbach’s Conjecture are provided.
Category: Number Theory

The Negative Mass and Positive Luminosity as an Explanation for Dark Matter According to Inverse Relativity

Authors: Michael Girgis
Comments: 12 Pages.

The luminosity of stars and galaxies is relativistic luminosity because it is affected by the motion and gravity of stars and galaxies. It is called positive relativistic luminosity because it is related to the positive relativistic mass assumed by the inverse relativity model. The difference between the positive relativistic mass in positive space-time and the total relativistic mass that bends the fabric of space-time, according to the inverse relativity model is the negative relativistic mass or mass in negative space-time, the properties and distribution of negative relativistic mass in the universe are consistent with the properties and distribution of dark matter, as it does not emit radiation, does not interact with light, does not consist of a specific elementary particle, does not interact with electric and magnetic fields, and interacts only with gravity, as it appears only on the cosmic level in Stars, galaxies and galaxy clusters
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Development of Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Narrative - Part VII

Authors: Vladimir S. Netchitailo
Comments: 117 Pages.

According to Wikipedia, Classical physics refers to pre-1900 physics, while modern physics refers to post-1900 physics which incorporates elements of quantum mechanics and relativity . In our opinion, Classical Physics is branch of Physics that should be described by classical notions, which define emergent phenomena. Emergent phenomenon is property that is a result of simple interactions that work cooperatively to create more complex interaction. Physically, simple interactions occur at microscopic level, and collective result can be observed at macroscopic level. WUM introduces classical notions, when the very first ensemble of particles was created and become possible to introduce notion "Medium of the World". We emphasize that Classical Physics is principally different from Quantum Physics that describes quantum objects, which have only four-momenta. Classical Physics is dealing with ensembles of quantum objects! Existence of the Medium is a principal point of WUM. It follows from observations of Intergalactic Plasma,Microwave Background and Far-Infrared Background Radiations. Abandoning of Luminiferous Aether by Special Relativity in 1905 was crucial for Classical Physics. It is a great pity that mainstream physicists at that time did not know (or forgot) theory of Luminiferous Aether developed by J. McCullagh in 1846. The Medium of the World is the Savior of Classical Physics! Don't throw the baby out with the bathwater. WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics. The main objective of the Model is to unify and simplify existing results in Classical Physics into single coherent picture of a New Cosmology.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Золото-комплексное сечение (Complex Golden Section)

Authors: Sergey Y. Kotkovsky
Comments: 12 Pages. In Russian. Corrections and additions made.

Для широко известной пары чисел золотого сечения и обратной к нему величины обнаружен их комплексный аналог. На основе изучения комплекснозначных бисимметричных матриц второго порядка показана неразрывная связь вещественного и комплексного золотых сечений.

For a well-known pair of numbers of the golden section and the inverse of it, their complex analogue has been found. Based on the study of complex-valued symmetric matrices of the second order, we show the deep inseparable connection between real and complex golden sections.
Category: Algebra

On Emergence of Relativistic Time from Quantum Phase

Authors: Lucian M. Ionescu
Comments: 10 Pages.

Previously, an analysis of emergence of 3D-space from quark fields in the context of QCD suggested a similar analysis of the relation between quantum phase and relativistic time.As a follow-up, Einstein's synchronization analysis, in the context of quantum theory of EM leads to emergence of Minkowski Space-Time from quantum phase in the context of Scalar EM.An essential step in this direction was made by Kaluza-Klein approach to unification of gravity and electromagnetism.This research program suggests that GR can be derived from the SM, via gauge theory, with Gravity from quantum origin, emerging macroscopically as geometry. In essence this is a "reverse engineering" of the historical development of modern theories from classical ones, taking the quantum level as primary, in order to derive the classical models we call "reality".
Category: Quantum Physics

An Information Based Theory of Stationary Action

Authors: David Trost
Comments: 11 Pages.

The quantization of energy proposed by Planck to account for the observed spectrum of black body radiation has associated with it a quantization of entropy. This in turn implies a quantization of observable information, directly implying observational uncertainty on the order of Planck’s constant. The effect of that uncertainty is analyzed. In order to adhere strictly to the use of observable quantities, a probability measure is employed based on the distinguishability of statistical samples. This leads directly to the description of probability in terms of the absolute square of a complex amplitude. The Feynman rules may then be applied naturally for indistinguishable events without contradiction to the conventional rules for distinguishable events. This enables the straightforward calculation of the probability that a particle moves from one arbitrary point to another. The Feynman formulation of quantum phenomena and the principle of stationary action results when it is assumed that the classical action represents the measure of distinguishability. Parallel analysis on a Lorentz manifold yields the geodesic principle.
Category: Quantum Physics

Theory of Original Gravity Revisited; Unified Field Theory, Starting Out from Quantum Formulation to Manifold Geometry

Authors: Amal Kumar Ghosh
Comments: 23 Pages.

This paper assumes an acquaintance with a new concept of time and gravity to provide a unified field theory. A new mathematical attempt intended to formalise the gravity current and the speed of gravity signal have been shown.The present author starts out from the Theory of Original Gravity and presents to unified field theory in a simple manner. This paper includes the formulations of quantum theory, pseudo-Riemannian manifold, four-gradient operator and Lorentz-invariant interval as a notable mathematical tools.All of the ideas and matters presented in this paper are mainly based on quantum theory and manifold geometry.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Lorentz Covariance of the Octonion Covariant Derivative

Authors: Richard D. Lockyer
Comments: 12 Pages.

The Octonion covariant derivative form applied to an inertial frame of reference velocity transformation requires Lorentz covariance if the two components in rotational and irrotational field types are to maintain proper relative sign and equivalent scale post transformation. Similar to the other Octonion fields different from the magnetic and electric fields, the expected hyperbolic rotation of electric field into the magnetic field and magnetic field into electric field are produced by application of the covariant derivative on Octonion potential function algebraic elements. Also presented are 8-current, 8-work-force and Octonion Poynting vector covariant forms for inertial frame of reference velocity transformations.
Category: Mathematical Physics

Solving Triangles Algebraically

Authors: Joseph Bakhos
Comments: 10 Pages. Published April 19, 2023. Applied Mathematical Sciences, Vol. 17, 2023, no. 8, 379-390 doi: 10.12988/ams.2023.917399 pdf available at: http://www.m-hikari.com/ams/ams-2023/ams-5-8-2023/p/bakhosAMS5-8-2023.pdf

Quaterns are a new measure of rotation. Since they are defined in terms of rectangular coordinates, all of the analogue trigonometric functions become algebraic rather than transcendental. Rotations, angle sums and differences, vector sums, cross and dot products, etc., all become algebraic. Triangles can be solved algebraically. Computer algorithms use truncated infinite sums for the transcendental calculations of these quantities. If rotations were expressed in quaterns, these calculations would be simplified by a few orders of magnitude. This would have the potential to greatly reduce computing time. The archaic Greek letter koppa is used to represent rotations in quaterns, rather than the traditional Greek letter theta. Because calculations utilizing quaterns are algebraic, simple rotation in the first two quadrants can be done "by hand" using "pen and paper." Using the approximate methods outlined towards the end of the paper, triangles may be approximately solved with an error of less than 3% using algebra and a few simple formulas.
Category: Functions and Analysis

My Understanding of the Phenomenon of Gravity

Authors: Robert Yusupov
Comments: 40 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin to conform with scholarly norm)

This article is devoted to the phenomenon of gravity. The author considers this phenomenon in the framework of his book "Theory of Nature". The physical quantity "gravitational quantity of the Universe" (analogous to Newton's gravitational constant) is a variable in time quantity. It increases over time according to a certain algorithm (scenario). It is directly related to the amount of available matter in the Universe at the considered moment of time.
Category: Classical Physics

Alternative to SI

Authors: Robert Yusupov
Comments: 56 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin to conform with scholarly norm)

This article is devoted to the question of finding an alternative system for SI. In the framework of the author's book "Theory of Nature" this issue, this problem is solved positively. The author found a system of units, which is an alternative to the modern SI.
Category: Classical Physics

General Association Problem in One-component Systems

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 6 Pages. Keywords: association, solutions, associates, monomers, Gibbs energy

The general problem of homoassociation is solved. The resulting system of equations allows us to calculate the content of each associate in the solution by the value of the difference in Gibbs energies of the formation of this associate and monomer. It is also possible to calculate the Gibbs energies of the formation of all associates and monomer from the known shares of the association.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Anomalous Magnetic Moments of Proton and Electron as a Relativistic Effect of the Indeterminacy Relation

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 10 Pages.

Upon the Heisenberg indeterminacy principle, a bivector model of the ground (Gaussian) state of an elementary particle is proposed. A new interpretation of the observed physical value is proposed. It is shown that taking into account the relativistic mass leads to the appearance of an additional (angu-lar) moment of momentum for particles in the ground state. The bad values of the magnetic moments of the proton and electron were calculated, and an acceptable fit to the observed data was reached. The alternative approach is proposed to determine the interconnections of a spin, angular and total mo-ments of an elementary particle.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

New Discoveries to the Collision Electro-Magnetic Theory From 0-1 Series

Authors: xIa Cao
Comments: 5 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin to conform with scholarly norm)

Can you imagine that two small stones can collide to generate electricity and light up a small lamp? Can you imagine that knocking on the door with your hand can power the LED board and illuminate the book? Can you imagine that the 28-watt fluorescent tube lamp can be lit up when you walk with it in your hand[? It turns out that generating electricity is simple. The energy generated by gently rubbing the plastic plate can light up at least a one-watt bulb, and even charge the mobile phone. The simple generator is made into a cylindrical type, which can efficiently collect wind energy under low wind speeds and easily light up ten one-watt bulbs.We know that the motion of objects in the universe is eternal. As long as there is motion, there will be interactions. I have found that electromagnetic energy will be generated when matter collides with each other，including macroscopic objects collisions and microscopic particles collisions. Thus I put forward "the Collision Electro-Magnetic Theory" . In addition, base on these discoveries, I found that rotating a closed circuit coil in a changing electric or electrostatic field could also generate an induced current and induced electromotive force in the coil. Which I call it Electra-electric induction (EEI). Both Maxwell displacement current and the electra-electric induced current we found are generated by the changing electric field. They are two forms of changing electric field. One existed in space. The other existed and flow in the conductor. The Maxwell displacement current is collected by the coil and flows, that is induced current.All these findings will be of great significance both in theory and in applications. Just like the invention of electromagnetic induction by Faraday in 1831, it is a milestone progression.Professor Xia CAO has made a series of discoveries that have gone entirely from 0 to 1, overturning traditional perceptions. Just like opening a door, it will have an immeasurable impact on physics, astronomy, new energy, nuclear energy, military and other fields. It will drive revolutionary anddisruptive progress in related industries and the global economy.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Derivation of Quantum Conditions Out of Provisions of the Special Theory of Relativity

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 8 Pages. Dedicated to Heinrich Rudolph Hertz on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of his birth

Equations, consistent with the kinematic relativistic relations and electro dynamics’ equations, are obtained in the tetrameric Euclidean space. Under the transition to a unitary tetrameric space, Born-Jordan permutable relations are obtained.
Category: Quantum Physics

Cardano's Formula

Authors: Edgar Valdebenito
Comments: 5 Pages.

Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576) was an Italian mathematician who is famed for his work Ars Magna which was the first Latin treatise devoted solely to algebra. In it he gave the methods of solution of the cubic equations.
Category: General Mathematics

15N Needles in the Haystack for Near Ambient Superconductivity: Possible 15N Enrichment at Lower Temperatures and Pressures

Authors: Reginald V. Little
Comments: 3 Pages. This manuscript is important to the community as it may give reasons for difficult replication of Dias and coworkers.

The author has previously noted the effects of stable isotopes having different nuclear magnetic moments on chemistry, catalysis, biochemistry, thermodynamics, optics, superconductivity and more [1]. In this controversy surrounding reported room temperature superconductivity at near ambient pressures by nitrogen doped lutetium hydride, the author hopes to convince and reason that the different synthesis conditions of the original work of Dias and coworkers [2] at low temperature, mild pressures, diamond anvil cell compression and prolong annealing may lead to selective doping of the lutetium hydride by 15N. The later attempted replication of Dias and coworkers by Hai-hu Wen and coworkers [3] may have caused different outcomes as Hai-hu Wen and coworkers appeared to try Dias work and then switched to a different synthetic method whereby Wen and coworkers instead applied high pressures and high temperatures to the reacting hydrogen, nitrogen and lutetium to produce a nitrogen doped lutetium hydride with similar lattice structure as the originally reported by Dias and coworkers [2] but lacking observed superconductivity and evidence of superconductivity by diamagnetism. The author here by his theory notes the possibility that the different later high pressure, high temperature synthesis by Wen and coworkers doped their sample with 14N rather than 15N as originally enriched in Dias’s sample. Thereby the author notes by his theory [1] that whereas 15N doped lutetium hydride manifests higher superconductivity due to its negative nuclear magnetic moment (NMM), the 14N doped lutetium hydride should not manifest superconductivity at the higher temperatures due to its positive NMM.
Category: Condensed Matter

On the Dark Matter Fluid Model

Authors: Zhi Cheng
Comments: 34 Pages. A summary

This paper attempts to build a model of dark matter fluids, according to which the universe is filled with dark matter fluids. This dark matter fluid is made up of two of the most basic particles, which are called Fieldons in this paper. These two basic dark matter particles can also form dark matter molecules, and rely on the interaction between molecules to form dark matter fluids. In the process of dark matter fluid flow, because the dark matter fluid itself also has a certain viscosity, it will produce turbulence when the flow rate of the dark matter fluid changes. The basic fluid form that makes up the turbulence of dark matter is the form of a vortex tube. Each end of the vortex corresponds to positive and negative charges and positive and negative magnetic monopoles. If we consider that the space-time in which the charges are the elementary particles is a space-time that can be measured by us humans, then the space-time composed of magnetic monopoles is the space-time that human beings cannot measure. Finally, using the conditions for the quantization of Dirac’s charge, we can show that the formation of charge and magnetic monopole vortexes can automatically satisfy the conditions for quantization of charge. The significance of this paper is to construct a new dark matter model, which can be used as an effective supplement to the existing dark matter model. In addition, this paper also points out that the propagation of electromagnetic waves in dark matter fluids is only similar to the sound propagating in matter on Earth, which is a very slow signal. If this analogy holds, it means that there may be a faster signal in the dark matter fluid. Perhaps the existence of this faster signal can also be used to explain the problem of quantum entanglement at a distance, and also bring the dawn of interstellar communication for human beings.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Shapiro Delay in Special Relativity

Authors: Enrique Domínguez Pinos
Comments: 12 Pages. In Spanish

A calculation method for the Shapiro delay in special relativity is presented.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Inertial Motions and Laplace Invariant

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 8 Pages. Keywords: SRT, Eigen Time, Laplace Invariant

The dynamics of particle motion is investigated within the frame of a relativistic model, constituting an Euclidean space with three real spatial axes and one axis corresponding to the local (eigen) time. An assumption is set forth about the isotropy of this tetrameric space at small velocities of the objects as a consequence of the equivalence principle of the spatial and eigen time coordinates. The equations for trajectories are found, which are classified as the inertial motion. In the three-dimensional spa-tial basis, besides the trivial solutions, they include the accelerated motion in the harmonic and gravitational fields. In the latter case, such a motion can be implemented under the assumption of the two-dimensional nature (or complexity) of the eigen time of the particles. The Laplace invariant is constituted by the real components of the coordinates and velocities.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Electra-Electric Induction Induction Current Generated by Cutting the Electric Field Line

Authors: Xia Cao
Comments: 11 Pages.

It is well known that cutting magnetic field lines leads to the generation of an induced current and induced electromotive force in a closed circuit coil, called as electromagnetic induction. In this paper, we found that rotating a closed circuit coil in a changing electric or electrostatic field could also generate an induced current and induced electromotive force in the coil without any external magnets..Here we call it Electra-electric induction (EEI). This is a completely new discovery, and will be of great significance both in theory and in applications. We deduced that both Maxwell’s displacement current and the Electra-electric induced current we found are generated by the changing electric field. They are two forms of changing electric field. One exists in space. The other exists and flows in the conductor. Maxwell’s displacement current is collected by a coil and flows in a conductor, that is induced current. In addition, one can expect that the extremely strong electrostatic field near the high-voltage wire, as well as the strong electromagnetic field generated by the radiation of nuclear reactor or nuclear waste dumping, can be collected by the rotated coil driven by the windmill which results in a continuous induced current flow generated. This work not only provides new thinking on the physical meaning of the last two terms of Maxwell’s equations, but also opens up new possibilities for non-electromagnetic induction and provides a new idea for the generation and transmission mode of power energy. Just like the invention of electromagnetic induction by Faraday in 1831, it is a milestone progression.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Emulador - Emulator

Authors: Carlos Alejandro Chiappini
Comments: 6 Pages. carloschiappini@gmail.com

ENGLISH: It is a circuit that uses two transistors in a novel configuration. Minimize distortion to the point of being undetectable. It combines the properties of a preamplifier and an operational amplifier. The output level is regulated by the gain control and not by a volume potentiometer. It has two inputs, one non-inverting and one inverting. The latter makes it possible to create, for example, a very simple and very pure mixer. As a preamplifier it is ideal for microphones because the output signal is strictly identical in shape to the input signal./////////ESPAÑOL: Es un circuito que utiliza dos transistores en una configuración novedosa. Minimiza la distorsión hasta el extremo de ser indetectable. Combina las propiedades de un preamplificador y de un amplificador operacional. El nivel de salida está regulado por el control de ganancia y no por un potenciómetro de volumen. Tiene dos entradas, una no inversora y otra inversora. Esta última permite crear, por ejemplo, un mezclador muy simple y muy puro. Como pramplificador es ideal para micrófono porque la señal de salida es, en forma, rigurosamente idéntica a la señal de entrada.
Category: Classical Physics

Comparing Cosmological Models

Authors: Andrew Holster
Comments: 63 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: An abstract is not present in the article - Please conform)

The standard model of cosmology is acclaimed in physics as accurate, robust, well-tested, our best scientific theory of the cosmos, but it has had serious anomalies for a while, including the Hubble tension, anomalous galaxies, and the completely unexplained nature of dark energy and dark matter. And lurking behind it all is the lack of a unified theory: General Relativity (GR) and quantum mechanics (QM) are inconsistent. Now startling new observations by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 of the early universe present the strongest challenge yet to the standard model, and whispers have started that this shows there is something wrong with the fundamental theory, General Relativity itself. This would be a crisis for cosmology. But haven’t they tested this theory already, and shown it is correct? How could it turn out wrong at this late stage? Here we compare the standard cosmology with an alternative fundamental theory, that has a strikingly different overall cosmological behavior: a simple cyclic expansion function. It is simple and deterministic. There are only two or three general parameters. The alternative here has strong evidence already from other areas, but the primary result here is that this alternative cosmology: (A) closely matches the expansion observed and modelled through the CDM standard model, now going back to red-shifts of 5-15; and (B) it also predicts unexpected early galaxy formation now being reported by the JWST. The point here is not to try to prove this alternative theory however, but rather show how it compares to the conventional cosmology. This show us clearly how weak the empirical evidence for the standard model really is against a counterfactual fundamental theory. Some results established in science are robust against theory change, but we find the standard cosmological model and the implications drawn from it are not robust at all.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Dirac Large Number Hypothesis and a System of Evolving Fundamental Constants.

Authors: Andrew Holster
Comments: 60 Pages.

In his [1937, 1938], Paul Dirac proposed his "Large Number Hypothesis" (LNH), as a speculative law, based upon what we will call the "Large Number Coincidences" (LNC’s), which are essentially "coincidences" in the ratios of about six large dimensionless numbers in physics. Dirac’s LNH postulates that these numerical coincidences reflect a deeper set of law-like relations, pointing to a revolutionary theory of cosmology. This led to substantial work, including the development of Dirac’s later [1969/74] cosmology, and other alternative cosmologies, such as the Brans-Dicke modification of GTR, and to extensive empirical tests. We may refer to the generic hypothesis of "Large Number Relations" (LNR’s), as the proposal that there are lawlike relations of some kind between the dimensionless numbers, not necessarily those proposed in Dirac’s early LNH. Such relations would have a profound effect on our concepts of physics, but they remain shrouded in mystery. Although Dirac’s specific proposals for LNR theories have been largely rejected, the subject retains interest, especially among cosmologists seeking to test possible variations in fundamental constants, and to explain dark energy or the cosmological constant. In the first two sections here we briefly summarize the basic concepts of LNR’s. We then introduce an alternative LNR theory, using a systematic formalism to express variable transformations between conventional measurement variables and the true variables of the theory. We demonstrate some consistency results and review the evidence for changes in the gravitational constant G. The theory adopted in the strongest tests of Ġ/G, by the NASA Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) experiments, assumes: Ġ/G = 3(dr/dt)/r — 2(dP/dt)/P — (dm/dt)/m, as a fundamental relationship. Experimental measurements show the RHS to be close to zero, so it is inferred that significant changes in G are ruled out. However when the relation is derived in our alternative theory it gives: Ġ/G = 3(dr/dt)/r — 2(dP/dt)/P — (dm/dt)/m — (dR/dt)/R. The extra final term (which is the Hubble constant) is not taken into account in conventional derivations. This means the LLR experiments are consistent with our LNR theory (and others), and they do not really test for a changing value of G at all. This failure to transform predictions of LNR theories correctly is a serious conceptual flaw in current experiment and theory. It means NASA has spent decades falsely claiming to rule out the major type of alternative theory possible.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Universality of Superconducting Transition Temperatures

Authors: Hans Peter Good
Comments: Pages.

It is hypothesized that superconducting transition temperatures are universal properties, which are amenable to a simple theoretical ansatz. The conjecture is supported by measured superconducting transition temperatures of many high quality samples. The experimental data contradict the mainstream view that an interaction between electrons and lattice vibrations is responsible for superconductivity.
Category: Condensed Matter

Modelling of Elementary Particles’ Structure

Authors: V.G. Bondarev, L.V. Migal
Comments: 19 Pages.

Based on the previously presented model of space-time, the structural features of elementary particles formation are considered. The paper investigates the model of elementary particles formation composed of such fundamental particles as loveton, electron, neutrino, and their an-tiparticles. In this paper, a set of basic particles is selected from among the simplest composite elementary particles, followed by a consideration of the ways of their decay, allowing the es-timation of the masses and binding energies of fundamental particles. Formulas to calculate the masses of elementary particles have been obtained, and, based on the proposed algorithm and the developed program, mass spectra of both hadrons and leptons have been calculated. Struc-tures of the τ-lepton and proton have been determined, and a possible reason for proton stabil-ity has been revealed. The difference between hadrons and leptons, mesons and baryons is ex-plained. Comparison of the calculated data on the masses of elementary particles obtained ex-perimentally showed good agreement with the available empirical data. This fact confirms the validity of the procedure for the formation of composite particles based on the construction of mass formulas for their decay and shows the high efficiency of the proposed approach. Com-parison of hadrons and leptons allowed us to propose a hypothesis about the possible nature of the strong interaction by considering electron-positron pairs as electric dipoles.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Energy Conservation Law for the Gravitational Field in a 3D-Brane Universe

Authors: Ruslan Sharipov
Comments: 12 Pages.

The 3D-brane universe model is an alternative theory of gravity. It was introduced using the concept of temporal coexistence. In the present paper the energy conservation law for the gravitational field and matter in the 3D-brane universe model is derived.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Binary Goldbach’s Conjecture: Geometric Associations

Authors: Gennady Butov
Comments: 20 Pages.

Two hypotheses are put forward about the infinity of intersecting ellipses and hyperbolas, which are given in the form of equations with prime numbers.1. Representation of the sum of two prime numbers in the form of an ellipse equation.Determining the conditions for the intersection of hyperbolas when decomposing even numbers into two primes.2. Representing the difference of two prime numbers as a hyperbolic equation.Determining the conditions for the intersection of ellipses in the decomposition of even numbers into two primes.
Category: Number Theory

Graphical Representation of Quaternions and Their Concomitant Functions

Authors: Stephen C. Pearson
Comments: 33 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Future hand-written submission will not be accepted))

In this particular paper we will demonstrate that, by invoking the concept of a 'quaternionic quasi-complex component', it is possible to graphically represent all quaternions and their concomitant functions with the aid of specific quaternionic analogues of the Argand diagram from complex variable analysis, bearing in mind that the algebraic and analytic properties of the aforesaid numbers and functions have been comprehensively elucidated in the author's antecedent papersIn this particular paper we will demonstrate that, by invoking the concept of a ‘quaternionic quasi-complex component’, it is possible to graphically represent all quaternions and their concomitant functions with the aid of specific quationic analogues of the Argand diagram from complex variable analysis, bearing in mind that the algebraic and analytic properties of the aforesaid numbers and functions have been comprehensively elucidated in the author’s antecedent papers [2]; [3]; [4] & [5].
Category: Functions and Analysis

Do the Elements Sign their Name in the Spectral Lines?

Authors: Tzimon Barto
Comments: 9 Pages.

My study concerns the elusive patterns of the chemical elements' spectral lines as they appear in the region of that spectrum visible to the naked eye.A musical chromatic scale is superimposed over the standard system measuring the frequencies of each element's spectra.The interval between the base of the measurement - "0" - and that area on the chromatic scale where the intensity of an element's spectra is at its weakest and at its strongest provide the clues necessary for determining a pattern ultimately found in 90 out of the 98 naturally occurring elements. My short paper on the subject reveals exactly how this conclusion is reached. The data I used are tables provided by the NIST Atomic Spectra Database and NIST Standard Reerence Database.
Category: Chemistry

A Note On Gravity Field And Gravimetry

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French

In this short note, we give some elements on the gravity field and gravimetry. In addition, we will return to applications for altitude definitions and precision leveling observations as well as distance reductions.
Category: Geophysics

The Informational Physical Model — Nuclear Force

Authors: Sergey V. Shevchenko, Vladimir V. Tokarevsky
Comments: 18 Pages.

This initial Planck scale model of nucleons interactions in nuclei (fundamental Nature Nuclear force) is developed in n framework of the whole Planck scale informational physical model that is based on the main postulate that everything in Matter exists, happens, interacts, and moves as some specific disturbances in Matter’s ultimate base — the dense lattice of the [4+4+1]4D binary reversible fundamental logical elements [FLE], particles are some close-loop algorithms that run basing on the lattice FLE "hardware", what was applied earlier at developing of the 2007 initial models of Gravity and Electric forces It is shown, that in the case, when nucleons in nuclei interact on some distances, the action of Nuclear force is seems practically complete analog of action of Gravity and Electric forces, i.e. the Nuclear force mediators, in the model "circular mesons", are in the main traits analogs of Gravity and Electric forces mediators "circular gravitons/photons", also are propagating in the lattice as specific disturbances that are initiated by specific parts of particles’ algorithms’ FLEs "Forces charges". In contrast to particles, at propagating in the lattice mediators, at least at statics, don’t carry energy, but a mediator, if hits into "irradiated" particle, triggers in this particle own energy release that causes the particle’s motion, etc. Only in this case the energy conservation law acts — in contrast to standard physical theories, where Forces mediators/fields contain energy. Also in contrast to the mediation of Forces in the theories, where mediators are virtual, all Forces mediators are completely real FLE structures in Matter. The developed model is in accordance with existent nuclear physics experimental data.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Zero-shot Transferable and Persistently Feasible Safe Control for High Dimensional Systems by Consistent Abstraction

Authors: Tianhao Wei, Shucheng Kang, Ruixuan Liu, Changliu Liu
Comments: 7 Pages.

Safety is critical in robotic tasks. Energy function based methods have been introduced to address the problem. To ensure safety in the presence of control limits, we need to design an energy function that results in persistently feasible safe control at all system states.However, designing such an energy function for high-dimensional nonlinear systems remains challenging.Considering the fact that there are redundant dynamics in high dimensional systems with respect to the safety specifications, this paper proposes a novel approach called abstract safe control.We propose a system abstraction method that enables the design of energy functions on a low-dimensional model.Then we can synthesize the energy function with respect to the low-dimensional model to ensure persistent feasibility.The resulting safe controller can be directly transferred to other systems with the same abstraction, e.g., when a robot arm holds different tools. The proposed approach is demonstrated on a 7-DoF robot arm (14 states) both in simulation and real-world. Our method always finds feasible control and achieves zero safety violations in 500 trials on 5 different systems.
Category: Topology

Multi-Fold Gravity and Double Copy of Gauge Theory

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 12 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/.

In a multi-fold universe, gravity emerges from Entanglement through the multi-fold mechanisms. As a result, gravity-like effects appear in between entangled particles, whether they be real or virtual. Long range, massless gravity results from entanglement of massless virtual particles. Entanglement of massive virtual particles leads to massive gravity contributions at very smalls scales. Multi-folds mechanisms also result into a spacetime that is discrete, with a random walk fractal structure, and non-commutative geometry, that is Lorentz invariant and where spacetime nodes and particles can be modeled with microscopic black holes. All these recover General Relativity (GR) at large scales and semi-classical model remain valid till smaller scale than usually expected. Gravity can therefore be added to the Standard Model resulting into what we define as the SMG., the Standard Model (SM) with gravity non-negligible at its scales. This can contribute to resolving several open issues with the SM, and the Standard Cosmological Model, without new Physics other than gravity. Over the last 20 years, a set of papers have introduced studies that indicate that gravity appears to be the dual of a suitable squared gauge theory: the double copy duality. This property appears through multiple order of perturbations, and multiple loop, and it is conjectured to extend through any order. In this short note, we explain how such a results is actually directly, and globally, i.e. not only perturbatively, or, in other words, to any order, explained by the multi-fold mechanisms behind gravity and entanglement along with the underlying spin-2 symmetry. It physically, and microscopically explains both the double copy duality, and its validity to any order. The results holds for massless gravity and for massive multi-fold gravity.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Quantum Entanglement

Authors: Vladimir Pastushenko
Comments: 5 Pages.

The causes and consequences of the properties of a particle and a wave are presented, during the passage of a quantum of space-matter of an electron, a photon, through one and two slits. Causes and consequences of quantum tunneling through any potential barrier. And the properties of entangled particles are presented as quantum properties of space-matter.
Category: Astrophysics

The Radiative Corrections to the Coulomb Law and Bohr Energy

Authors: Miroslav Pardy
Comments: 11 Pages. Original Article

The photonpropagation function with electron-positron pair is determined from the effective emission and absorption sources. The Schwingersource methods of quantum field theory is applied. Then, the Coulomb potentialand Bohr energy with radiative corrections are determined.
Category: Quantum Physics

Calculation of the Rest Masses of Elementary Particles Using Polynomials with the Base π

Authors: Helmut Christian Schmidt
Comments: 16 Pages. Section 1.6 is the linchpin that the calculations are correct not just by chance and wants to ensure this in advance.

By restricting k to rational numbers, the Schrödinger wave equation Ψ = Ae^{-i/ℏ(Et+mrdr/dt)} = Ae^{-i π k} can be converted into a polynomial with the base π. Ultimately, this leads to the action S for each object:
S_Object =(2π)⁴ E_t + (2π)³ E_r i^t + (2π)² E_φ i^t-1 + (2π)E_θ i^t-2
t in Z If 2 objects and an observer have a common center of gravity, the energies can be related and calculated using a single polynomial. The integer quantum numbers E_t, E_r, E_φ and E_θ ensure cohesion and lead to the four fundamental natural forces. Our worldview, with 3 isotropic dimensions x, y and z and rotations with 2π must be distinguished from this. The polynomials are transformed by simple operators (addition) for parity, time and charge. The 3 spatial dimensions result from regularly recurring parity operators. Numerous calculations are given for the orbits in the solar system and for the masses of the elementary particles, e.g.:
m_neutron / m_e =(2π)⁴ +(2π)³+(2π)²-(2π)¹-(2π)⁰-(2π)^-1+2(2π)^-2+2(2π)^-4-2(2π)^-6 +6(2π)^-8=1838.6836611
The charge operator for all particles is:
C = - π + 2π^-1 - π^-3 + 2π^-5 - π^-7 + π^-9 - π^-12
Together with the neutron mass, the result for the proton is:
m_proton=m_neutron + C m_e= 1836.15267363 m_e
The probabilities for the correct representation of the neutron and proton mass have been calculated and are greater than 0.99997. The muon and tauon masses can be calculated in the same way.
Fine structure constant:
1/α = π⁴+π³+π²-1- π^-1 + π^-2-π^-3 + π^-7 - π^-9- 2π^-10-2π^-11-2π^-12
For an observer and two objects, from the torque and angular momentum alone, a common constant of h, G, and c can be derived, giving a ratio of meters and seconds:
h G c⁵ s⁸ /m¹⁰ Math.sqrt( π⁴- π²- π^-1- π^-3 ) = 1.00000
How fast the surface of a body moves relative to its radius is determined purely by the smallest possible ratio of its rational coordinates.
2π c(α) meter orbital period = Math.sqrt(diameter)
2π c meter day = (Earth's diameter)²
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

ChatGPT: The Evolution of Natural Language Processing

Authors: Ho Ngoc Hai
Comments: 68 Pages.

This document focuses on ChatGPT, a natural language processing (NLP) model built by the transformer neural network. The document provides a comprehensive overview of the architecture, training, and fine-tuning of ChatGPT, as well as its applications in various fields, including customer service and support, healthcare, education, research, and development.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Post Pandemic, Social Media Pedagogy: Math with TI Calculator Menu Programs

Authors: Timothy W. Jones
Comments: 5 Pages.

Laments from teachers of all stripes are growing. Looking out from behind the podium one can constantly see a sea of bored, confused, seemingly moribund students staring at their I-phones, maybe still wearing Covid masks. Between the pandemic and social media and traditional sage on a stage teaching teachers reside: a kind of prehistoric fish out of any known water. In this article we propose a solution using in novel and controversial ways TI-84 CE calculators. The idea is to show how to animate students via increased teacher-student and student-student interactions. It is field tested: life does come back into the classroom with the techniques I give in this article: get an easy A using your cool calculator, filling in a shell provided by the teacher.
Category: General Mathematics

The Physical Source of Morgellons Disease

Authors: Wilson McCord
Comments: 10 Pages. Attribution CC-BY-NC-ND: Anyone can share this material, provided it remains unaltered in any way, this is not done for commercial purposes, and the original authors are credited and cited.

Morgellons Disease is a condition where micro-filaments are found coming from, embedded in or under the skin of patients and is complicated by accompanying infections throughout the body. Evidence is provided here for the source of Morgellons Disease and suggests that Morgellons Disease is caused by physical contaminants.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

On the Cosmic Evolution of the Quantum Vacuum Using Two Variable G Models and Winterberg’s Thesis

Authors: Christopher H. Pilot
Comments: 32 Pages. 1 Figure, 4 Tables

We work within a Winterberg framework where space, i.e., the vacuum, consists of a two component superfluid/super-solid made up of a vast assembly (sea) of positive and negative mass Planck particles, called planckions. These material particles interact indirectly, and have very strong restoring forces keeping them a finite distance apart from each other within their respective species. Because of their mass compensating effect, the vacuum appears massless, charge-less, without pressure, net energy density or entropy. In addition, we consider two variable G models, where, G, is Newton’s constant, and, G^(-1) , increases with an increase in cosmological time. We argue that there are at least two competing models for the quantum vacuum within such a framework. The first follows a strict extension of Winterberg’s model. This leads to nonsensible results, if G increases, going back in cosmological time, as the length scale inherent in such a model will not scale properly. The second model introduces a different length scale, which does scale properly, but keeps the mass of the Planck particle as, ± the Planck mass. Moreover we establish a connection between ordinary matter, dark matter, and dark energy, where all three mass densities within the Friedman equation must be interpreted as residual vacuum energies, which only surface, once aggregate matter has formed, at relatively low CMB temperatures. The symmetry of the vacuum will be shown to be broken, because of the different scaling laws, beginning with the formation of elementary particles. Much like waves on an ocean where positive and negative planckion mass densities effectively cancel each other out and form a zero vacuum energy density/ zero vacuum pressure surface, these positive mass densities are very small perturbations (anomalies) about the mean. This greatly alleviates, i.e., minimizes the cosmological constant problem, a long standing problem associated with the vacuum.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

An Optical System Design Method From Off-the-shelf Optical Components

Authors: Lev Ryzhikov
Comments: 5 Pages.

Numerous number off-the-shelf optical lenses and lens components are available for use in the design of new optical systems. But there isn’t a clear methodology on how effective there are in a real optical instrument. The reason for this is that the most common way to use off-the-shelf optical components is in metrology test stands. There is no volume restriction and off-the-shelf lenses work with low numerical apertures, field angles, and small field sizes. For this working condition, image quality is good due to small aberration. The other case is if those components will be used in real manufactured optical systems. Here lens effectiveness plays a more important role and an optimal optical system structure need to be found. In this article new method of evaluation of any lens optical components will be introduced. In other words, this method will provide a measure of the effectiveness of lens components. This method was developed for single lenses, cemented doublets, and triplets. For this approach, the new optical parameter which simultaneously includes the glass refraction index and Abbe number will be proposed. The combination of refractive index and Abbe number allow evaluation level of mono and chromatic lens aberration thru one parameter. Comparisons of wave aberration (optical path difference-OPD) for different off-the-shelf lenses and lens components will be present for all cases. In conclusion, OPD results for various optical lenses and components will be discussed.
Category: Classical Physics

An Inconsistent Hierarchy of Sets in [0, 1]

Authors: Jim Rock
Comments: 1 Page. Contains a reply to a common objection made about 2303.0105 v1.

Two contradictory arguments are developed from a hierarchy of sets in [0, 1]. One argument is a proof by contradiction and its conclusion is true. The other argument is an existence argument and while its conclusion is not true, it follows logically from the a valid assumption followed by three true statements that precede the conclusion.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Sense Entropy: The Law of Conservation of Sense.

Authors: Egger Mielberg
Comments: 15 Pages.

In this article, we define such key concepts as sense entropy, sense energy,sense efficiency coefficient (SEC). These metrics are critical to determining andmonitoring the performance of any real* AI implementation.We give a description of the basic non-scalar tools for building real artificialintelligence with the ability to adapt to a variety of conditions of its habitat.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

New Method of Calculation of Physicochemical Parameters of Organic Compounds

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 59 Pages.

A new elemental linear empirical method (ELEM) is proposed for calculating the values of the physicochemical characteristics of compounds with the composition and structure of their molecules. In the atom, the calculated values of empirical parameters, temporal parameters that make up the molecule of compounds are used.The principle of "linearity of non-linear effects", the definition of non-linear dependencies "structure-property" and "property-property" of food infections are substantiated. A fundamentally new approach to the physical and chemical parameters of compounds established between compounds has been developed, which can be expressed by the scheme: "PROPERTIES - MOLECULAR STRUCTURE - PROPERTIES".
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

The Riemann Hypothesis Is True: The End Of The Mystery

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 8 Pages. Submitted to one journal of the London Mathematical Society.

In 1859, Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann had announced the following conjecture, called Riemann Hypothesis : The nontrivial roots (zeros) $s=sigma+it$ of the zeta function, defined by: $$zeta(s) = sum_{n=1}^{+infty}frac{1}{n^s},,mbox{for}quad Re(s)>1$$ have real part} $sigma= frac{1}{2}$. In this note, I will give the proof that $sigma=1/2$ using an equivalent statement of the Riemann Hypothesis concerning the Dirichlet $eta$ function.
Category: Number Theory

A Specific Magnitude Budget for the Detection of 36 Nuclear Earthquakes Near Large Urban Areas Subject to a Natural Seismic Hazard.

Authors: Alexis Zaganidis
Comments: 31 Pages.

Multiple underground nuclear explosions may trigger the rupture of seismic faults and mimic a natural earthquake. Moreover, multiple nuclear explosions can be spatially arranged (on a vertical line for instance) and temporally synchronized in order to reduce significantly the P-waves (except inside both spherical cones along the vertical line arrangement).A Specific Magnitude Budget, with the relevant elementary approximations, is relatively enough accurate to compare unambiguously the energy of the stress drop over the fault rupture and the energy of the radiated seismic waves.Indeed, for the largest natural earthquakes precisely recorded ($6.9 leq M_wleq 7.3$), we define very conservatively their average seismic radiation efficiency to $0.25$. It follows from that definition, the natural seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $0.113$ and $0.520$ around the average $0.269$ (the natural Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta_{nat}^{min} M_Z=-0.630$ and $Delta_{nat}^{max} M_Z=-0.189$ around the average $Delta_{nat}^{mean} M_Z=-0.380$).On the other hand, the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency ranges between $1.185$ and $1~113$ around the average $81.9$ (the nuclear Specific Magnitude Budget range between $Delta^{min}_{nuc} M_Z=0.049$ and $Delta^{max}_{nuc} M_Z=2.031$ around the average $Delta_{nuc}^{mean} M_Z=1.275$).In practice, the natural seismic radiation efficiency is always $2.278times$ times smaller than the nuclear seismic radiation efficiency (an artificial gap of the Specific Magnitude Budget $Delta_{gap} M_Z=0.238$ is found). Indeed, to provoke a more powerful stress drop over the fault rupture with multiple underground explosions, an accurate information about the future epicenters should be known which is impossible in practice. Lowering too much the energy of the multiple underground nuclear explosions would also increase the risk of not triggering at all the rupture of a seismic fault.
Category: Geophysics

Mechanism and Physical Significance of Half-Wave Loss in Reflected Light

Authors: Peng Xiaotao
Comments: 10 Pages.

The fact that the reflected light has half-wave loss proves that the reflected light is not simply reflected from the incident light by the medium interface directly, but has a deep physical mechanism and significance. According to my long-term research, the reflected light is actually a part of the secondary light generated after the incident light makes the atoms on the reflecting interface polarize into electric dipoles. This physical phenomenon reveals the law of interaction between light and medium: the atoms in the medium are converted into electric dipoles by incident photopoles and generate secondary light, and the incident light will be gradually cancelled out and disappear by secondary light in this process. Generally, the refracted light entering the transparent medium and the transmitted light passing through the transparent medium are part of the secondary light produced by the medium, not incident light or its variant.
Category: Classical Physics

The Mechanism of Faraday Magneto-Optical Effect and Its Physical Significance Are Explained in Detail

Authors: Peng Xiaotao
Comments: 9 Pages.

The mechanism of Faradic magneto-optical effect is that the external magnetic field changes the motion state of electrons and nuclei in the medium, which leads to the polarization direction of the secondary refracted light which is slightly different from the incident light and is transmitted in the medium and accumulates continuously. It directly proves that refracted light is not incident light, but a new secondary light produced by the medium and related to incident light. Its physical significance will overturn people's understanding of the law of interaction between light and medium, and will have a profound and huge influence on the whole physics field.
Category: Classical Physics

The Discrepancy Between the Assumption Implied in Field Definition and the Objective Reality is the Main Cause of Many Theoretical Errors in Modern Physics

Authors: Peng Xiaotao
Comments: 12 Pages.

The definition of the field (gravitation field, electric field and magnetic field) implies a hypothesis: suppose there is a point field source (mass or positive charge) of one unit on the observation point P, and the magnitude and direction of the force it receives (gravitation, Coulomb force and magnetic force) is the magnitude and direction of the field strength on the point. When the field is further extended into a continuous differentiable function in space-time, the above implicit assumption is further extended as follows: there is a point field source of one unit at all spatial positions in space-time. The objective reality is that the distribution of field sources in space-time is not continuous, nor stable. As a result, many physical theories, theorems and laws based on field and field theory cannot be consistent with objective facts. Such as: electromagnetic induction law, Gauss law, Hubble law, Maxwell equations, relativity, quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory. This article carries on some discussion and certification, hope interested friends put forward more valuable comments and suggestions.
Category: Classical Physics

On the Difference of the Values the Faraday Constant

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 5 Pages. Keywords: Faraday constant, electrochemical equivalent, mass spectrome- try, free fall acceleration

The numerical value of the Faraday constant as the charge of one mole of electrons has slight differences depending on the experimental technique of its measurement. An original explanation to this fact is set forth. The values of the free fall acceleration for different elements are slightly different.
Category: Classical Physics

Human Biological Clock and Planetary Temperature Distribution Determined by Relativistic Matter Wave

Authors: Huaiyang Cui
Comments: 22 Pages.

Relativistic matter wave provides a biological clock for human beings, it also governs planetary size and temperature. In this paper, the sunspot period, earth’s atmosphere circulation with season clock and human biological clock are investigated, the clock formula is derived. As the results, the period of sunspot cycle is calculated to be 10.93 years, the human mean lifespan on the Earth is calculated to be 84 years, while the human mean lifespan reduces to 8.6 years on the Mars. A guidance of anti-ageing is proposed for the biological clock. The solar radius is determined as 7e+8 (m) with a relative error of 0.72%; the earth's radius is determined as 6.4328e+6 (m) with a relative error of 0.86%. The temperatures in the solar interior and in the earth’s interior are also calculated by their relativistic matter waves. This approach gives a temperature 6031K in the solar convective layer, the solar core shell is estimated at a temperature 852K. The atmospheric temperature at sea level in the equatorial region is estimated to be 293K, and the mantle temperature is estimated to be 1467K.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Longitudinal Polarization in General Relativity: Can Quasi-Inertial Oscillations Impact the Gravitational and Microwave Backgrounds?

Authors: Kathleen A. Rosser
Comments: 19 Pages.

A novel general relativistic plane-wave metric is presented with a proposal for possible detection. Called a quasi-inertial oscillation (QIO), the metric is an exact solution to Einstein's vacuum field equations, yet carries non-Einsteinian longitudinal polarization, permitted by its quasi-inertial status. Although QIOs are metric waves in spacetime, they differ fundamentally from the standard gravitational waves assumed to be detected by LIGO and Virgo. QIOs are an oscillating type of quasi-inertial disturbance (QID), a broader class of exact solutions to Einstein's equations with varying features that travel at the speed of light. The observable properties of QIDs, and of QIOs in particular, have rarely if ever been studied in the literature. Yet it is shown here that if general relativity accurately models gravity, QIOs should produce test particle acceleration and are thus in principle observable by space-based detectors. Due to Riemann flatness, QIOs were historically dismissed as unphysical, and hence unobservable, by authors such as Taub, McVittie, Weber and others. However, these authors were seeking gravitational waves capable of forming gravitons, a far more stringent requirement than mere observability. Moreover, the claim that Riemann flatness precludes detection does not apply to metrics for which the coordinate system is fixed by a physical structure, such as a space-based platform, an accelerating rocket, or the cosmic microwave background, nor to metrics associated with frame-dependent quantum processes such as the Unruh effect. Nevertheless, subsequent authors continued to dismiss exact longitudinal plane-wave solutions and thus overlooked a real possibility of detection. With the benefit of hindsight, it is proposed here that QIOs may not only be detectable, but that Riemann flatness does not rule out the potential influence of QIOs on astrophysical or cosmological backgrounds, including the stochastic gravitational wave and photon backgrounds. QIOs are presented first in rectangular coordinates, then in Brinkmann coordinates for comparison with pp-waves. It is also shown that the Riemann-flat metric of a uniformly accelerating Rindler frame, theoretically detectable by Unruh radiation, can be constructed as a product of (rectangular) advanced and retarded QIDs, offering further argument for observability through an Unruh-type effect. Astrophysical and cosmological mechanisms are proposed as physical sources of QIOs. It is further suggested that, since QIOs are energy-free exact solutions to Einstein's equations, there is nothing to obstruct their generation by accidental alignments of matter, and thus nothing to prevent the vacuum from being filled with weak transient random spacetime fluctuations.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Model of Consciousness

Authors: Hui Liu
Comments: 2 Pages.

The generation of consciousness needs its biological basis, neurons. The number of neurons plays a crucial role. Nematodes only have hundreds of neurons, while humans have about 80 billion neurons. In addition, neurons generate consciousness in some way. The core of this way is two things: excitement and inhibition. We call it biological binary.
Category: Mind Science

Collatz Conjecture

Authors: Durmagambetov Asset, Durmagambetov Aniyar
Comments: 6 Pages.

The paper analyzes the number of zeros in the binary representation of a natural number. The analysis is carried out using the concept of the fractional part of a number, which naturally arises when finding a binary representation. This idea relies on the fundamental property of the Riemann zeta function, which is constructed using the fractional part of a number. Understanding that the ratio of the fractional and integer parts, by analogy with the Riemann zeta function, expresses the deep laws of numbers, will explain the essence of this work. For the Syracuse sequence of numbers that appears in the Collatz conjecture, we use a binary representation that allows us to obtain a uniform estimate for all terms of the series, and this estimate depends only on the initial term of the Syracuse sequence. This estimate immediately leads to the solution of the Collatz conjecture
Category: Number Theory

Task with Apples Fun Math with Neural Network AI

Authors: Vladimir Aksayskiy
Comments: 3 Pages.

To embody the plans of the Creator is pleasure without end, without sorrows, - but how to go through the thicket of details? Now, it seems, a quick-witted assistant has appeared - neural network Artificial Intelligence. Neural AI is not a magician, it only learns - however, to many intellectuals, it seems comparable to the intelligence of a person, its creator.
Category: General Science and Philosophy

Principle of Causality and Inertial Frames of Reference

Authors: Andrey N. Smirnov
Comments: 14 Pages.

A hypothesis is proposed that generalizes the principle of causality. The hypothesis assumes that the principle of causality is applied separately and independently for each different inertial reference frame. It was noted that the observer has only the information that the inertial reference frame relative to which he is stationary has. Further analysis led to the conclusion that from the observer's point of view, any event exists in all inertial reference frames, even if it exists only in a part of the inertial reference frames. The hypothesis leads to the fact that two types of transformations arise during the transition between inertial reference frames. The first is the transformation from the observer's point of view. The second type of transformation is direct transformations of space-time and fields. When considering the hypothesis, it was noted that all modern widely accepted theories rely on the principle of causality. At the same time, the principle of causality does not depend on them, it is more fundamental. Therefore, the hypothesis can be considered based only on the principle of causality, without taking into account any other principles and physical theories. If the hypothesis is true, then all modern physical theories satisfy only the first type of transformations. The hypothesis allows for a new class of theories to be created that take into account the second type of transformations. These theories can lead to new predictions. Therefore, it can be argued that the hypothesis is, in principle, falsifiable. If the hypothesis is true, then there is something more fundamental than space-time.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Simple Proof that This Earth is a 4-Dimensional Space-Time

Authors: Yuji Masuda
Comments: 1 Page.

In the previous number, I defined the unit of charge as 3 and showed that Coulomb's law holds. In this number, I will explain this earth dimension from the detailed explanation of Fleming's left-hand law in the previous number.
Category: General Mathematics

On Treatment of Conductometric Data

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 18 Pages.

A procedure for treatment of phoregrams, based on published experimental data, is developed. The resulting ionization constants and limiting molar conductivities of aqueous solutions of organic acids differ from published values.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Nuclear Force as Purely Electromagnetic Interaction

Authors: Oliver R. Jovanovic
Comments: 5 Pages.

In this paper I will try to demonstrate that nuclear force is electromagnetic in its origin and nature. I will model it solely as an electromagnetic interaction of neighboring quarks.
Category: Nuclear and Atomic Physics

Relationship of the Photon to Cosmology and Origin of the Universe

Authors: Mark Anthony Tierno
Comments: 17 Pages. Please refer to my other paper at https://vixra.org/abs/2301.0148 first before reading this one.

This paper covers the second half of my theories, these concerning things on a more cosmological scale. The theories presented herein stem ultimately from what is going on with the photon, so an understanding of the first half of these theories presented in my paper "Relation of the Internal Structure of the Photon with Field and Charge" is required (https://vixra.org/abs/2301.0148), so please read through that first paper before proceeding; any references involving that paper will be referred to as "my first paper".I said in the closure of my first paper that you cannot understand Infinity until you know the Infinitesimal. This is quite literally true since the bulk of these cosmological theories begin by scaling up the previous discussion of the photon, the concept of force comprising energy, and the rest of it, to cosmological levels. In this paper we will see a new theory of the origin of the universe to replace the Big Bang and Inflationary models, one that does not require Dark Matter or Dark Energy to work, discuss how the model presented of the photon and the field of force emanating from it can scale up to stellar-sized gravitational fields yet still without the need for curved space, have a briefly related discussion of the problems with using the Red Shift to verify the curvature of space, put frame-dragging and time dilation into a new perspective, and discuss a theory as to what came before the so-called origin of the universe. We will also discuss the origin of force itself, and the inclusion of parallel universes into the overall theory.
Category: Classical Physics

A Boolean Algebra over a Theory

Authors: Shao-Dan Lee
Comments: 9 Pages.

Suppose that L is a first-order language. Let Lu2020 denote the union of L and {t, f} where t(true), f(false) are the nullary operations. We may define a binary relation ‘≤’ such that the sentences set Φ of the language Lu2020 is a preordered set. And we may construct a boolean algebra Φ/∼, denoted Φ ̃ , by an equivalence relation ‘∼’. Then Φ ̃ is a partial ordered set. Let A be a structure of the language L. If Th(A) is a theory of A, then Thu2020(A) is an ultrafilter. If Ψ ⊂ Φ ̃ is a finitely generated filter, then Ψ is principal. We may define a kernel of a homomorphism of the boolean algebra Φ ̃ such that the kernel is a filter. And a filter is a kernel if it is satisfied by some assumptions.
Category: Algebra

Cross Product Through Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Authors: Yuji Masuda
Comments: 1 Page.

In explaining matters not explained in my previous post No. 51, especially electricity, I will mention a special method of calculation called vector product.
Category: General Mathematics

Easy Aerodynamics: Kutta-Zhukowsky (Joukowski) Lift

Authors: Leonardo Rubino
Comments: 15 Pages.

Calculation of the lift in flight — Kutta-Zhukowsky’s Equation.
Category: Classical Physics

3D Map of the Universe - A Big Misunderstanding [?]

Authors: Jiří Šrajer
Comments: 11 Pages.

It is impossible to create a correct 3D map of the observable part of the universedue to the fact that what we see around us is not a three-dimensional space. Eachobject we observe is distant from us not only in space but also in time. What we seeis a fragment of spacetime, and if we try to imagine it as a three-dimensional space,various deformations and incorrect determinations of distances and sizes of distantobjects occur.Regardless of whether real space is curved or flat, the observed part of the universecan be modeled as system of spheres (which differ in the time it took for the lightto reach us from a given sphere) distributed in a certain way in spacetime. In orderto correctly imagine the observable part of the universe, a four-dimensional map isnecessary. In this paper, I present one possible solution for constructing a 4D map ofthe universe. One may be surprised at how big the differences can be in comparison toa 3D map, which treats the observable part of the universe as three-dimensional space.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Hall Effect Thruster Design Via Deep Neural Network for Additive Manufacturing

Authors: Korolev Konstantin
Comments: 12 Pages. CC BY-NC-SA: Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike

Hall effect thrusters are one of the most versatile and popular electric propulsion systems for space use. Industry trends towards interplanetary missions arise advances in design development of such propulsion systems. It is understood that correct sizing of discharge channel in Hall effect thruster impact performance greatly. Since the complete physics model of such propulsion system is not yet optimized for fast computations and design iterations, most thrusters are being designed using so-called scaling laws. But this work focuses on rather novel approach, which is outlined less frequently than ordinary scaling design approach in literature. Using deep machine learning it is possible to create predictive performance model, which can be used to effortlessly get design of required hall thruster with required characteristics using way less computing power than design from scratch and way more flexible than usual scaling approach.
Category: Artificial Intelligence

Topological Structures of Möbius-Strip Fermions and Simple-Loop Bosons as the Fundamental Massless Quantum Field Excitations in 2D Spacetime

Authors: Jau Tang, Brian E. Tang, Qiang Tang
Comments: 21 Pages. This work provides deep insights into the physical properties of 2D spacetime and the topological structures of two types of the most fundamental massless fermionic Möbius -strip particles and bosonic close-loop particles as a building block for 4D partic

In this work, we present a model to treat the relativistic quantum dynamics of massless and massive particles in a 2D Minkowski spacetime. Using a set of three independent 2x2 real-value matrices to represent a time-shift operator ��, a space-shift operator ��, and a mass operator ��, we derive operator equations for massless particles which can be classified into two types of topological structures: the symmetric type-I with commutative �� and ��, representing a boson, and anti-symmetric type-II with {��,��} = 0, representing the fermion. We illustrate their topological differences and show that the fermion wave exhibits a twist during propagation like a Möbius strip. In contrast, the type-I boson behaves like a simple loop strip without a twist. The massless boson in our model resembles a 2D photon or a Higgs boson before symmetry breaking, while the fermion resembles a massless 2D Majorana particle. Unlike conventional string theories, we use a Möbius strip and a simple loop as the most fundamental topological structures of the quantum field excitations in 2D spacetime, representing fermionic and bosons. As an alternative to the string and loop quantum gravity theories, our approach could potentially serve as potential building blocks to construct elementary particles in the Standard Model, meriting an investigation into their topological properties in 4D spacetime.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Dimensional Reduction as Source of Cosmological Anomalies

Authors: Ervin Goldfain
Comments: 12 Pages.

Dimensional Reduction (DR) conjectures that the number of spacetime dimensions monotonically drops with the boost in energy scale. According to DR, the expectation is that ordinary space progressively unfolds from being one or two-dimensional near the Big-Bang singularity. This work argues that DR a) can explain some of the observed anomalies challenging the standard model of cosmology and, b) provides a platform for unifying the particle and gravitational interpretations of Dark Matter.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

An Equation of Six Eminent Physical Constants

Authors: Mario Hieb
Comments: 5 Pages. A short amendment is added.

A simple mathematical relationship exists between six eminent physical constants.
Category: Quantum Physics

Gravitational and Relativistic Effects Within Hot Universe Model

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 7 Pages.

Hot Universe model, filled by uniform isotropic radiation, coming from its border, is examined. Equations for gravitational forces, coincident with classical ones, and for particle momentum, coincident with relativistic expression with accuracy up to constant multiplier were obtained. It was demonstrated the Universe mass corresponds to the energy of relict radiation, divided by с^2, absorbed by the matter for the whole period from Big Rang.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Maxwell's Demon that Does not Consume Energy

Authors: Jiarun Deng
Comments: 6 Pages. (Correction made by viXra Admin - Please conform!)

The second law of thermodynamics has provided significant assistance to the development of science and technology since its inception, but we are skeptical about its universality. In this paper, we use the Michelson interferometer as a Maxwell's demon and use the method of optical interference to demonstrate that the second law of thermodynamics can be violated.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Neoclassical Physics Presentation

Authors: Marius Lelong
Comments: 11 Pages.

Since 1905, physics has lost its soul, the intimate contact with reality and reason.The modern era has brought a revolution, a profound change in the representationswe have of the world. But the old classical Newtonian physics is resisting, it hasnot yet said its last word. Throughout this article, we will show that it provides anelegant, clear and precise answer to current questions in physics. Despite appearances,it remains consistent with all the empirical, experimental data that it can explain whilemaintaining a requirement for realism and rationality.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Psychological Program

Authors: Xianxiang Duan
Comments: 53 Pages. In Chinese

This paper attempts to reveal through case analysis that psychological activities are a set of programs and that the cause of mental illness is error in operation of the programs or the establishment of erroneous programs. By modifying or learning to use these psychological programs correctly, mental illness can be treated precisely and thoroughly. The complete psychotherapy process is represented by the following: psychoanalysis + modification of psychological programs.In order to perform certain tasks, life bodies need to initiate a series of psychological or physiological activities, which is the process of psychological or physiological activities called "psychological program". Psychological program is an abstract concept, and it is not a material entity. The search for psychological activity programs mainly depends on psychological analysis and scientific hypnosis.
Category: Social Science

Decisive Role of Gravitational Parameter G in Cosmology

Authors: Vladimir S. Netchitailo
Comments: 12 Pages.

In 1937, P. Dirac proposed the Large Number Hypothesis and the Hypothesis of the variable gravitational "constant," and later added the notion of continuous creation of Matter in the World. The Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing a different mechanism of Matter creation. In this paper we show that Gravitational parameter G that can be measured directly makes measurable all Cosmological parameters, which cannot be measured directly.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

About Non-Trivial Zeros

Authors: Justin Walter
Comments: 1 Page.

This short paper is about the non-trivial zeros of Riemann Hypothesis.
Category: Number Theory

Analysis of Financial Crisis Causes and Complex Systems Scientific Methods

Authors: Duan Xian Xiang
Comments: 10 Pages.

The financial crisis is because money flows are blocked or interrupted, and gives two formulas. One formula is to calculate the speed of money flow, and another formula is the money demand and supply formula of the "nodes". The paper also presents methods for analyzing complex science, which economics is. The paper proposes several methods to analyze complex systems, such as "program" and "fractal".
Category: Economics and Finance

Proof that Exists Infinitely Many Primes of the Form N^{2} + 1

Authors: Marko V. Jankovic
Comments: 11 Pages.

In this paper it is going to be proved that exists infinitely many primes that are of the form n^2+1.
Category: Number Theory

Space and Time in Relativity

Authors: Svein Otto Kanstad
Comments: 9 Pages.

The nature of space and time in current relativity physics is defined by Einstein’s special relativity theory (SRT), with length contraction and time dilation in moving inertial systems as fundamental elements in SRT’s structure of space and time. Both are essentially ad hoc concepts, supported by a wealth of complex and exacting experiments. This paper instead starts by considering the simplest possible relativistic experiment — the propagation of a beam of light, as seen from the principle of relativity point of view. It is found that the principle of relativity by itself transforms space and time coordinates of an optical wave between inertial systems, and secures the covariance of the Maxwell equations — both otherwise the prerogative of the Lorentz transformation. When analyzed by those coordinate transformations defined by the principle of relativity, crucial relativistic experiments that provide the experimental support of SRT’s concepts of space and time are explained without recourse to length contraction or time dilation. Consequently, time dilation and length contraction of rigid bodies inside moving inertial systems do not occur in a real world ruled by the principle of relativity. In particular, experiments show that time proceeds equally fast in a moving inertial system as in a stationary system. Concepts of space and time in current special relativity theory therefore are not compatible with the principle of relativity. A consistent special theory of relativity would have its basic structure of space and time defined by the principle of relativity, not by the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. That shall simplify relativistic concepts, to make relativity theory more transparent and true to relativity physics, possibly opening up for further advances directly from the basis of relativity.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The High Q Resonance Characteristics of the CEWL Electron Model May Predict Directionality of Virtual Photons and Neutrinos

Authors: Donald Bowen
Comments: 13 Pages.

The High Q resonance characteristics of the CEWL Electron Model [1] [2], suggests that virtual photons and Neutrinos will form in 2 specific directions relative to a Lepton (see below). The Charged Electromagnetic Wave Loop (CEWL) model is the only known model of the Electron which explains pair production and also exactly matches all known values of the electron, including energy, de Broglie frequency, charge, mass, and generates the correct magnetic moment without resorting to superluminal velocities. The model also explains the previous mystery of why the Electron’s g-factor is 2 rather than one (½ spin) [2]. Two new insights stemming from the CEWL model are explored in this paper:One new insight is that since the model represents an electromagnetic oscillation with zero internal resistance, the capacitive and inductive reactance must match each other, and also match the reactive impedance of free space, leading to unique values for the Electron’s capacitance and inductance in free space, i.e. 3.41912126348 x 10-24 Farads and 4.85262 x 10-19 Henries. (An LC resonant loop using these two values matches the Electron’s de Broglie frequency as well as the CEWL rotational frequency). The second new insight (which might be testable) predicts the probable directionality of virtual photons and Neutrinos. This stems from the fact that the loop characteristics of the CEWL Model, in which the loop circumference exactly matches the wavelength of a (virtual) photon equal to the Electron’s energy, is analogous to the characteristics of a high Q (resonant) loop antennae in which the circumference must also exactly match the wavelength in order to achieve high Q resonance, which leads to a prediction that the virtual photons of leptons will be generated in the same directions as high Q loop antennas i.e. in the North and South magnetic directions generated by the CEWL loop (loop antennas without these high Q resonance characteristics have very different radiation/absorption patterns). This new insight about probable directionality might help guide future research into how and where Neutrinos and virtual photons form near the Electron, Muon, and Tau Leptons.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Projection Theory Part I Supplement 2: The Mystery of the Electron Size

Authors: Norbert Buchholz
Comments: 6 Pages.

The size of the electron is still mysterious. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) requires a radius of 0, projection theory gives a radius of 0.66943 10^(-16) m and the classical electron radius calculated via the electron's self-energy is given in the literature as 2.82794 10^(-15)m. The main subject of this work was a decided analysis of the equation system for the calculation of the classical electron radius. The following important points could be worked out: a) The factor f42, which was derived in the context of the projection theory, appears in a system of equations from the established physics. b) The classical electron radius is not 2.82794 10-15m but 1.3214098 10-15m (= λCP = smin), and this finding finds a simple explanation in the projection theory. c) The equations for the calculation of the classical electron radius or for the calculation of the Compton wavelength are, after minor transformations, completely congruent with the formulae developed in projection theory for the calculation of the electrostatic field constant ε0 or Planck's quantum of action h. These new findings clearly show that the projection theory is not an abstruse idea resp. exotic physics, but is already inherent in the existing equations of established physics and these only have to be reinterpreted to recognize the true core of our physical reality.
Category: Classical Physics

Net-Proton Number Fluctuations in the SST Nuclear Plasma

Authors: Sylwester Kornowski
Comments: 9 Pages. Published in peer-reviewed Journal of Modern and Applied Physics

Here we show that the kurtosis multiplied by the squared standard deviation for net-proton distributions in nuclear collisions validate the nuclear-plasma structure described in the Scale-Symmetric Theory (SST). We also described the SST nuclear phase diagram.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

Exobiological DNA 1bna based on Silicon

Authors: Ricardo Gobato, Abhijit Mitra, Sufia Zaman
Comments: 7 Pages.

The Silies has been investigated as a possible al-- the DNA double helix - sometimes doubles up again. Researchers have now found this quadruple-stranded form in healthy human cells for the first time. Speculate that the quadruplex structure forms to hold the molecule open and facilitate the reading of the genetic code and thus the production of proteins. G-quadruplex DNA is a four-stranded structure made that can form a ’knot’ in the DNA of living cells. In these terms, it was analyzed through computationalcalculations, via MM(Molecular Mechanics), and byab initio Restricted Hartree-Fock (RHF) method, on a simple STO-3G (Slater-type orbitals with 3 Gaussians) basis, the possibility of a DNA macromolecule based on Silicon. From the basic structure of 1bna, however, you assume conditions without the presence of Carbon, replacing it with Silicon. It was obtained a cluster of G-quadruplex DNA, forming a cocoon, with great possibility for the pharmaceutical industry in capturingmolecules foreign to human DNA.
Category: Physics of Biology

Principle of Causality and Inertial Frames of Reference (in Russian)

Authors: Andrey N. Smirnov
Comments: 14 Pages.

A hypothesis is proposed that generalizes the principle of causality. The hypothesis assumes that the principle of causality is applied separately and independently for each different inertial reference frame. It was noted that the observer has only the information that the inertial reference frame relative to which he is stationary has. Further analysis led to the conclusion that from the observer's point of view, any event exists in all inertial reference frames, even if it exists only in a part of the inertial reference frames. The hypothesis leads to the fact that two types of transformations arise during the transition between inertial reference frames. The first is the transformation from the observer's point of view. The second type of transformation is direct transformations of space-time and fields. When considering the hypothesis, it was noted that all modern widely accepted theories rely on the principle of causality. At the same time, the principle of causality does not depend on them, it is more fundamental. Therefore, the hypothesis can be considered based only on the principle of causality, without taking into account any other principles and physical theories. If the hypothesis is true, then all modern physical theories satisfy only the first type of transformations. The hypothesis allows for a new class of theories to be created that take into account the second type of transformations. These theories can lead to new predictions. Therefore, it can be argued that the hypothesis is, in principle, falsifiable. If the hypothesis is true, then there is something more fundamental than space-time.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Problem of Particle-Antiparticle in Particle Theory

Authors: Felix Lev
Comments: 20 Pages. 2 figures. Published in "Proceedings to the 25th Workshop What Comes Beyond the Standard Models, Bled, July 4-10, 2022", pp. 146-161.: http://bsm.fmf.uni-lj.si/bled2022bsm/talks/BledProceedings2022_Acceptable_06_12.pdf

The title of this workshop is: "What comes beyond standard models?". Standard models are based on standard Poincare invariant quantum theory (SQT). Here irreducible representations (IRs) of the Poincare algebra are such that in each IR, the energies are either >=0 or <=0. In the first case, IRs are associated with particles and in the second case - with antiparticles, while particles for which all additive quantum numbers (electric charge, baryon and lepton quantum numbers) equal zero are called neutral. However, SQT is a special degenerate case of finite quantum theory (FQT) in the formal limit p→∞ where p is a characteristic of a ring in FQT. In FQT, one IR of the symmetry algebra describes a particle and its antiparticle simultaneously, and there are no conservation laws of additive quantum numbers. One IR in FQT splits into two standard IRs with positive and negative energies as a result of symmetry breaking in the formal limit p→∞. The construction of FQT is one of the most fundamental (if not the most fundamental) problems of particle theory.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

The Everest Hypothesis: Sexual Reproduction as a Conserver of Replicative Fidelity and an Adaptation to Unstable Environments

Authors: Patrick Douglas Shaw Stewart
Comments: 14 Pages. I wanted to change the title back to Everest Hypothesis because I think the previous title was confusing

AbstractThis review examines three critical questions in evolutionary biology: (1) why do virtually allmulticellular and many unicellular organisms reproduce sexually? (2) Why have some animalsevolved extravagant ornaments and complex mating rituals that appear detrimental? (3) How does natural selection maintain high-fidelity genetic replication? I present a simple "Everest hypothesis" to answer these questions. First, I note that the genes that specify the proteinsthat replicate DNA are subject to mutation, so replicative fidelity must vary between individuals. Moreover, many organisms choose their mates by responding to various complex biochemical mechanisms, physical displays, and behaviors, generated by many gene products acting together. I propose that natural selection consistently adds unnecessary complexity to the mechanisms that transfer genetic material between individuals, and since most mutations are either harmful or neutral, mutator mutations are likely to disrupt these mechanisms. Sex may, therefore, provide a filter to reduce the dissemination of mutator mutations. Sex may also have allowed ancient organisms to colonize unstable environments where strong selective pressures would apply. This can explain many puzzling biological phenomena. For example, the migration and spawning of Atlantic salmon and the complex displays of birds of paradise may be bestunderstood as "tests" to show that potential mates possess genes for high-fidelity geneticreplication. Animals that have developed ornaments that appear harmful, such as peacocks,and animals that undertake remarkable migrations, such as monarch butterflies, may provide conspicuous examples of such tests. I also make suggestions for experiments to test the hypothesis.
Category: Quantitative Biology

The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Are Logically Equivalent

Authors: Richard Kaufman
Comments: 8 Pages.

In the September 2022 issue of The Physics Teacher (TPT), Richard Kaufman and Harvey Leff showed the interdependence of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Here, we go further and use the facts that the first law implies the second law, and that the second law implies the first law. This two-way implication establishes the logical equivalence of the first and second laws. Although the laws are logically equivalent (when one is true, then the other must be true), this does not mean that they are the same. The equivalence provides for a deeper and richer understanding of the laws of thermodynamics, as discussed in a section on pedagogy.
Category: Thermodynamics and Energy

Deriving Measurement Collapse Using Zeta Function Regularisation and Novel Measurement Theory

Authors: Mark Stander
Comments: 14 Pages. Refinement following feedback.

This paper shows how an application of zeta function regularisation to a physical model of quantum measurement yields a solution to the problem of wavefunction collapse. A realistic measurement ontology is introduced, which is based on particle distinguishability being imposed by the measurement process entering into the classical regime. Based on this, an outcome function is introduced. It is shown how regularisation of this outcome function leads to apparent collapse of the wavefunction. Some possible experimental approaches are described.
Category: Quantum Physics

Simultaneity and Synchronization and Einstein's Relative Simultaneity

Authors: Rodrigo de Abreu
Comments: 12 Pages.

In this paper it is reconsidered the physical meaning of Einstein's Relative Simultaneity, based on the results obtained previously in the context of the meaning of simultaneity and synchronization that has also been addressed in several other papers. In the standard Special Relativity, usually, simultaneity and synchronization is considered with the Einstein one-way speed of light that has been introduced by Einstein in the 1905 article "by definition". In the standard interpretation the one-way speed of light is not considered since the Einstein speed of light is considered the speed of light. However, in our previous work we have shown that this is a terminological confusion. Now it is addressed Einstein´s Relative Simultaneity with a very simple conciseformalism using two clocks in every point of a frame, frame that is moving in relation to the preferred frame, a synchronized clock, and a Lorentzian clock. We previously obtain an expression that shows an intrinsic desynchronization of Lorentzian clocks in every frame except in the preferred frame where the one-way speed of light is isotropic. Therefore, we designate the preferred frame by Einstein Frame (EF). Allegedly the conventionality of the one-way speed of light originate the conventionality of simultaneity. Therefore, we clarify the meaning of simultaneity and Einstein´s Relative Simultaneity concluding that Einstein´s Relative Simultaneity is not simultaneity except in EF. Simultaneity is not relative. However, we conclude that Einstein´s Simultaneity is relative since Lorentzian clocks are desynchronized except in EF.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Solution to the EPR Paradox Using Subtle Energies and Conscious Intent

Authors: Jeffrey S. Keen
Comments: 10 Pages. 5 Figures, 4 Tables

This Paper sets out below my overall strategy for solving the EPR paradox. I have spent over 30 years researching entanglement, EPR and subtle energies with the intention of solving the EPR paradox, but from a different starting point to the current understanding of quantum physics by the scientific establishment. I have received confirmation from several independent reputable sources that my measurements are correct to a 90%+ accuracy.
Category: Quantum Physics

On the Topology of Problems and Their Solutions

Authors: Theophilus Agama
Comments: 6 Pages.

In this paper, we study the topology of problems and their solution spaces developed introduced in our first paper. We introduce and study the notion of separability and quotient problem and solution spaces. This notions will form a basic underpinning for further studies on this topic.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

Sixty Solutions to the Unsolved Problems in Physics

Authors: Deokjin Kim
Comments: 7 Pages.

There is a list of unsolved problems in physics on Internet Wikipedia. In this paper, sixty unsolved problems were calculated or explained through simple mathematics. The main results are as follows. (1) Generations of matter: Fourth generation particle does not exist. (2) Extra dimensions: The space of the universe has six dimensions. (3) Neutrino mass: The mass of electron neutrino is calculated to be 0.15 eV. (4) Neutrino oscillation: The 0.15 eV oscillates to 187.5 keV and 13.61 MeV. (6) Arrow of time: Our universe is 3D, and the quantization proceeds from 4D to 2D direction. (11) Dark matter: Something grows our universe by quantizing 4D space into 3D. (16) Origin of mass of most elementary particles: Extremely compressed three generation quantum spaces give mass to three generation particles. (24) Hierarchy problem: Elliptic equation must have a largest value and a smallest value. (28) Cosmological constant problem: The 10^120 is the ratio of 0D and 3D neutrino masses. (33) Supersymmetry: Elliptic equation is up & down symmetry and left & right symmetry. (38) Quantum gravity: Gravity is the Planck force of strong, electromagnetic, and weak forces. (40) Dark energy: There is a dark force greater than strong force. (41) Quantum chromodynamics: The mass of strong force is 42.15 keV, which is the root of tau mass 1776.86 MeV. (44) Hubble tension: CMB's 67.66 km/s/Mpc and Redshift's 73 km/s/Mpc are both right answers. (59) Fine-tuned universe: All universes change according to logarithmic elliptic equation, and all forces follow logarithmic parabolic equation. (60) Theory of everything: Since quantum space has a logarithmic characteristic, quantum particle must be calculated as logarithmic value.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

A Resolution of Bell’s Spaceship Paradox

Authors: Michael Leon Fontenot
Comments: 3 Pages.

The outcome of Bell’s Spaceship Paradox has historically been very controversial. Some physicists said the thread breaks, and some physicists said it doesn’t. More recently, most physicists say the thread breaks. But the correct answer is that the string does NOT break. That SAME answer is obtained by both of the two inertial observers who are at rest with the two spaceships immediately before acceleration begins, and also by both of the two observers who are forever stationary with respect to the two rockets themselves.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A New Interpretation of the Higgs Vacuum Potential Energy Based on a Planckion Composite Model for the Higgs

Authors: Christopher H. Pilot
Comments: 20 Pages. Submitted for publication

We present a new interpretation of the Higgs field as a composite particle made up of a positive, with, a negative mass Planck particle. According to the Winterberg hypothesis, space, i.e., the vacuum, consists of both positive and negative physical massive particles, which he called planckions, interacting through strong superfluid forces. In our composite model for the Higgs boson, there is an intrinsic length scale associated with the vacuum, different from the one introduced by Winterberg, where, when the vacuum is in a perfectly balanced state, the number density of positive Planck particles equals the number density of negative Planck particles. Due to the mass compensating effect, the vacuum thus appears massless, charge-less, without pressure, energy density, or entropy. However, a situation can arise where there is an effective mass density imbalance due to the two species of Planck particle not matching in terms of populations, within their respective excited energy states. This does not require the physical addition or removal of either positive or negative Planck particles, within a given region of space, as originally thought. Ordinary matter, dark matter, and dark energy can thus be given a new interpretation as residual vacuum energies within the context of a greater vacuum, where the populations of the positive and negative energy states exactly balance. In the present epoch, it is estimated that the dark energy number density imbalance amounts to, ((n_+ ) ̅-(n_- ) ̅)_Λ=8.52 E-3, per cubic meter, when cosmic distance scales in excess of, 100 Mpc, are considered. Compared to a strictly balanced vacuum, where we estimate that the positive, and the negative Planck number density, is of the order, 7.85 E54 particles per cubic meter, the above is a very small perturbation. This slight imbalance, we argue, would dramatically alleviate, if not altogether eliminate, the long standing cosmological constant problem.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Statistical Independence in Quantum Mechanics

Authors: John P Wallace, Michael J. Wallace
Comments: 10 Pages.

Algebraic mistakes of using a non-relativistic functions betrayed Dirac’s elegant derivation of the relativistic equation of quantum mechanics and exposed a short coming of special relativity. It was a serious mistake because that famous paper became a model for theorist to follow who produced an unending stream of nonsense. The mistake was compounded because it hid the fact that special relativity was still incomplete. Multiple independent spaces are required to generate both dynamics as well as produce particle properties. The concept of statistical independence of spaces that encapsulated quantum objects, fields and particles, was necessary for physics to have a relativistic basis for both massive particles and massless fields. The example that will be developed is the origin of the solar neutrino survival data that requires the electron neutrino to be massless as originally proposed by Pauli. The analysis renders a proof of the original quantum conjecture by Planck and Einstein that radiation is quantized and how inertia for massive particles is generated.
Category: Quantum Physics

Newton's Second Law and Relativistic Hamiltonian II: Atomic Terms

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 8 Pages. (Name added to Article by viXra Admin - PLease conform)

The first part of this study reports the calculation of five expressions of relativ-istic Hamiltonians of particles moving in the field of potential forces depending on the notation of the Newton’s second law. The results obtained were used to calculate terms of ground states of hydrogen-like atoms.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Explanation of Muon G-2 Discrepancy Using the Dirac Equation and Einstein Field Equations in Geometric Algebra

Authors: Jesús Sánchez
Comments: 28 Pages.

In this paper, we will use Geometric Algebra to combine the Einstein Field Equations with the Dirac Equation... The muon g-2 discrepancy could be due to gravitational effects (they are in the order of the difference between the measured value and the theoretical value). It is important to remark that the gravitational effects in this regard are due the mass of the muon itself, it is not necessary to include higher gravitational potentials as the Earth or the Sun gravity. Just the muon mass is capable of creating this discrepancy. Also, we have seen how using Geometric algebra it is possible to combine gravitational equations (generally used in tensor formalism) with the Dirac Equation (normally used in Matrix formalism).
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Relativistic Doppler Effect and Relict Radiation

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 5 Pages.

Relativistic Doppler effect for uniform particle movement driven by relict radiation is estimated numerically. Obtained results demonstrate that baryon mass is comparable with the energy of relict radiation, divided by с2, absorbed by the matter for the whole period of Universe existence.
Category: Astrophysics

[Consideration of Immunity Loss in the Epidemic Model of Respiratory Viruses]

Authors: Johnny J. Mafra Jr.
Comments: 16 Pages.

A previous work on Covid-19 forecast miserably failed to preview the epidemic evolution with the massive vaccination done during 2021. This paper aims to workaround its weak point, which was to not consider immunity loss in its model. The set of SIR equations was reviewed including immunity loss, Beta profile was recalculated and the model was tuned using real data of 2021. This way was achieved a good conformance between the simulation and data, roughly within the calculated uncertainty of 25%. The simulation for 2022 presented Omicron peak but switched in time. The probable explanation for that is an unbalance in Beta profile in the beginning of 2022, resulting in a bigger peak in January and in consequence a smaller one latter, due to more immune people. It was explored the hypothesis of different immunity losses for natural and vaccine immunities. This case showed a theoretical profile similar to the real data observed. As a limit case theoretical study, was verified that the epidemic evolution in several years more similar to real data was the case in that the vaccination didn’t avoid transmission or avoid as little as 20%. Simulation showed, as expected, that if Beta is below some limit the epidemic vanishes. Data showed that Covid-19 seems to be naturally vanishing by itself, meaning that no measures so far were effective. New approaches are speculated to provide a better performance on epidemic combat based on ventilation and air sterilization using GUV. Suggestions on how to test those approaches are presented.
Category: Statistics

Optimization of PID Controller Parameters for Speed Control of DC Motor Using Firefly and Fminsearch Algorithms

Authors: Subrata Pandey
Comments: 7 Pages.

This research paper presents a comparative study of the performance of two optimization algorithms, namely the Firefly Algorithm (FFA) and Fminsearch, for the PID tuning of a DC motor speed control system. The performance of the two algorithms is evaluated based on the time-domain response of the DC motor speed control system. The Integral of Time multiplied by the Absolute value of the Error (ITAE) is used as the objective function here. The results show that the Fminsearch algorithm outperforms the FFA in terms of the rate of convergence, computation time and settling time. The proposed approach provides an effective and efficient way for the design and tuning of PID controllers in DC motor speed control systems. This study contributes to the ongoing efforts in developing more efficient and reliable control systems for DC motors, which are widely used in various industrial applications.
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms

Quantized Space Time and Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity

Authors: Eran Sinbar
Comments: 3 Pages.

Based on Prof. Bekenstein and Prof. Hawking, the black hole maximal entropy[1], the maximum amount of information that a black hole can conceal, beyond its event horizon, is proportional to the area of its event horizon surface divided by quantized area units, in the scale of Planck area (the square of Planck length). This is a surprising result since it limits the amount of information bits in a volume of space to the amount of Planck area units that can fit into its surrounding surface area. Taking this information limit to the event horizon of a sphere in the size of Planck length in each of its three dimensions, will open up a new approach to a quantized (quantum) space - time structure.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Invisible Reality of Quantum Mechanics — the Deterministic Perspective

Authors: A. V. Herrebrugh
Comments: 19 Pages. Published: Orchid 0000-0002-4088-6657. HyperScience International Journal (HSIJ) 2023

The fundamental nature of quantum mechanics (QM) has been mathematically demonstrated in [17]to be inconsistent with the indeterministic and probabilistic results. Indirect1, commutativemathematics and integral transformations contradict probabilistic results with exact functions anddemonstrates determinism in a quantum system - hence, this paper is written from a deterministicperspective (DP) in quantum mechanics.Quanta cannot be observed in their original state and are literally invisible, while mathematicaldescriptions of physical phenomena are historically built for observables.After a brief historic perspective, ‘invisables’ i.e. invisible entities of reality in mathematicaltreatment, are introduced. These entities can be handled by mathematics indirectly i.e. are describedin the transformed domain without variables violating the Heisenberg relation. The consequence isthat direct (incl. if existing: hidden) variables theories of counterpart mathematics are unsuitable fordescriptions of the reality of individual invisables.In nature, i.e. on micro and macro level, causality is fully ‘entangled’ with information in themeaning of ordered or coded energy. In contrast with the macro scale with many forms and types ofmemory functions, without a memory property of quanta, on the quantum scale, causality is thebearer of information-symmetry2: in a causal relation, the effect function includes all information ofthe cause function i.e. the last attained quantum states include all information of the causing states.Furtheron in this DP paper: mathematical and philosophical consequences and influences in severalparagraphs, regarding subjects such as ‘free will’ and expected ‘threats to science’, the Bellinequalities, Alice and Bob & entanglement, causality, information, retro-causality, spooky action,encryption and computing, teleportation, and in general interpretations rooted in indeterminacy inQM as well as associated topics on independence, fine tuning and interference — with the notion thatthis selection does not pretend completeness and calls for extensions from a deterministicperspective — in case not fitting as well - to test this DP proposal.The last paragraph outlines the mathematical treatment of QM more extensively and may clarifyreferences to the above mentioned topics of discussion in QM further.The aim of the paper is clarification whether deterministic QM is viable i.e. whether anystatefunction Ψ can be deterministic in the end; the paper is written with a minimum use ofmathematics for accessibility and readability (for the mathematics see [17]).
Category: Quantum Physics

Newton’s Second Law and Relativistic Hamiltonian Part I: Theoretical

Authors: Yu. E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 8 Pages.

The relativistic kinematics and particle dynamics in the four-dimensional Euclidean space with real reference axes have been studied using the Lorentz transformations. Five types of relativistic Hamiltonians of particles moving in the field of potential forces are calculated, depending on the re-cording form of the Newton’s second law. The results obtained can be applicable to introduce relativistic corrections while solving a wide variety of problems in mechanics.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

The Fine Structure Constant in a PhR Context

Authors: W. Berckmans
Comments: 10 Pages.

The fine structure constant is a fundamental parameter in Physics and its value and properties must not be in conflict with a candidate Phusical reality model as proposed on viXra ("About Physical Reality"). This document goes one step further and outlines its crucial role in the evolution of our cosmos. It explains the significance in PhR terms of a fixed value of the inverse parameter and calculates its fractional part for matter and contra-matter.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Determination of the Ion Mobility in IPA by the Statistical Method of Finding Values of the Components of Binary Sums

Authors: Yu. E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 8 Pages.

The values of limiting mobilities of 29 organic and inorganic ions in isopropyl alcohol were determined by the method of the nonlinear regression. The experimentally determined values of the molar specific limiting conductivity of salts, acids and bases obtained by the conductometric and potentiometric measurements in isopropyl alcohol.
Category: Chemistry

Application of a Conductometric Method to Research the Protolytic Equilibria in Isopropyl Alcohol. Sodium Hydroxide is Used as a Titrant

Authors: A. V. Selitrenikov, Yu. E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 20 Pages.

The existing method to determine the dissociation constants of weak electrolytes using the direct conductometry and titration in aqueous solutions was successfully applied to the study in isopropyl alcohol medium. The sodium hydroxide was firstly applied as a titrant for the conductometric titration. Obtained values of dissociation constants of such electrolytes as: Н2СО3, HСlO4, NaOH, NaClO4, NaHCO3 in isopropyl alcohol allow to use them in potentiometric and spectrophotometric studies and ionic equilibria modeling in the presence of carbonic acid.
Category: Chemistry

From Fundamental Principles to String Theory

Authors: YoungDae Seo
Comments: 17 Pages.

This paper provides the inevitable principle that string theory can only be the theory of everything. The purpose of this paper is to arrive at the beginning of string theory through the assumption of the fundamental principles, and to apply it to the double-slit experiment to confirm the validity of string theory. According to the fundamental principle postulated in this paper, systems can form or break symmetry by free will. Symmetry formation and symmetry breaking coexist based on the indistinguishability of free will and chance. This fundamental principle inevitably leads to the appearance of strings. Through this, phenomena such as the uncertainty principle and the double-slit experiment can be explained simply. It also explains how the formation and collapse of wave functions occur. String theory can explain not only the hyper-microscopic world, but also the microscopic and macroscopic worlds. The fundamental principle is applied as the only philosophical principle of string theory, where all kinds of mathematical techniques are rampant.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

How to See the Remnant Star of Bethlehem

Authors: Clark M. Thomas
Comments: 2 Pages.

The Biblical Star of Bethlehem has long fascinatedmodern astronomers. My research in 2004, andlater in 2009, has yielded a likely candidate. This essay will assist field astronomers to locate and see its remnant from deep winter to very early spring.
Category: Astrophysics

Mond from FLRW

Authors: Alireza Jamali
Comments: 4 Pages. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Comments and objections are welcome.

After proving that the universal acceleration scale of MOND is the acceleration of light in an expanding Universe, it is shown that accelerating null rays require a modification of the metric of velocity space, hence the differential of velocity. Consequently the canonical momentum, and from there the law of motion are changed. After some approximations, MOND's essence is vindicated and it is seen as a necessary consequence of the acceleration of the Universe.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Yeah or Nay on Black Holes as Explanation for Dark Energy?

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 22 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/

Two recent papers argue having observationally confirmed that black holes could explain the universe accelerated expansion as sources of such expansion. These papers have generated a large interest in the wider public.The present paper presents arguments against, and a few in favor of such a proposal, as well as some variations on what could happen if the answer to the title was positive. Even if it isn’t.Then, we analyze the proposal in a multi-fold universe, where we can take advantage of more microscopic interpretations. Some could support the new proposal, but overall, most seem to go against it.Our conclusions are that while it might be possible that black holes could explain the acceleration of the universe expansion, because based on solutions to General Relativity (GR), we have more arguments against that view than in favor. It is therefore our conclusion on the matter: it’s a nay.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A Quark Fields Emergent Space-Time and Gravity

Authors: Lucian M. Ionescu
Comments: 11 Pages.

The idea of using the gauge theory paradigm of the SM to couple Quark-Lepton Model of matter and fields to Space-Time, as an emergent structure, is suggested. The color QCD quark fields, as SU(2)-connections of EM type, allows to define an adapted Space-Time metric compatible with the SU(3)-symmetry. It uses the double role of EM U(1)-connection, with the electric charge of the electron as a 4th color T, aside the RGB quark colors. The Quantum Flavor-Dynamics (Weak Force) corresponds to the break of symmetry due to finite subgroups of symmetry of SU(2), of Platonic type, and plays the role of a theory of transitions of states defined by principal quantum number in 3D, that we call "generation", similar to the case of electron transitions in an atom (2D finite subgroups). Gravity is a nuclear spin-spin dependent interaction, resulting from the fractional electric charge of quarks, as U(1)-components of the quark fields. This allows to derive Newtonian gravity as an emergent force, always attractive, by averaging over quark spin directions, providing a solution to the Hierarchy Problem. The compatibility between the fiber structure (SM Gauge Theory) and base connections (Space-Time and EM) is conjectured to allow in principle to relate the SM and General Relativity. This approach provides a unified approach to the four fundamental interactions. Several other remarks are included, e.g. regarding the relation between the emergent Space-Time approach and String Theory, GUTs, TOEs and Quantum Gravity.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

On Perfect Even Numbers and Perfect Odd Numbers (2)

Authors: Giovanni Di Savino
Comments: 41 Pages.

All prime numbers, less than the result of powers of prime numbers ≥2^n, generate perfect numbers; the prime numbers which, from the result of 2^n, are an odd number ≥1 away generate the even perfect numbers which are the result of: ((2^n -1)* 2^(n-1))/(2- 1); the prime numbers which, from the result of powers of prime numbers ≥3^n, are distant by an even number ≥2 generate the perfect odd numbers which are the result of: ((prime≥3 -2)*prime ≥3^(n- 1) )/(first ≥3 -1).
Category: Number Theory

New Classifications of Labeled Rooted Growing Trees and Their Application to Simplifying of the Tree Representation of Functions

Authors: G. I. Kalmykov
Comments: Pages.

The article deals with labeled rooted growing trees. Research in this area, carried outby the author of this article over the past 35 years, has led to the creation of the conceptof tree classification of labeled graphs. This concept is the mathematical basis of the treesum method aimed at simplifying the representations of the coefficients of power series in classical statistical mechanics. This method was used to obtain tree representations of Mayer coefficients of expansions of pressure and density in terms of activity degrees, which are free from asymptotic catastrophe. The same method was used to obtain tree representations of thecoefficients of the expansion of the ratio of activity to density in terms of activity degrees.All these representations for n ≥ 7 are much simpler than the comparable Ree-Hooverrepresentations according to the complexity criteria defined on these representations. Treerepresentations of the coefficients of the expansion of the m-particles distribution functioninto a series in terms of activity degrees were also obtained. All the above representations ofthe coefficients of power series obtained by the trees sum method are free from the asymptoticcatastrophe.In order to provide a mathematical basis for constructing new, even less complexrepresentations of the coefficients of these power series, further development of the conceptof tree classification of labeled graphs was required.As part of solving the problem of further development of this concept, the article proposesnew classifications of labeled rooted growing trees. And on their basis, the theorem wasformulated and proved, which is the basis for simplifying the tree representations of functions,that is, its representations as a sum of labeled by trees products of functions.
Category: Combinatorics and Graph Theory

On the Relations Between Fermion Masses and Isospin Couplings in the Microscopic Model

Authors: Bodo Lampe
Comments: 54 Pages.

Quark and lepton masses and mixings are considered in the framework of the microscopic model. The most general ansatz for the interactions among tetrons leads to a Hamiltonian $H_T$ involving Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya (DM), Heisenberg and torsional isospin forces. Diagonalization of the Hamiltonian provides for 24 eigenvalues which are identified as the quark and lepton masses. While the masses of the third and second family arise from DM and Heisenberg type of isospin interactions, light family masses are related to torsional interactions among tetrons. Neutrino masses turn out to be special in that they are given in terms of tiny isospin non-conserving DM, Heisenberg and torsional couplings. The approach not only leads to masses, but also allows to calculate the quark and lepton eigenstates, an issue, which is important for the determination of the CKM and PMNS mixing matrices. Compact expressions for the eigenfunctions of $H_T$ are given. The almost exact isospin conservation of the system dictates the form of the lepton states and makes them independent of all the couplings in $H_T$. Much in contrast, there is a strong dependence of the quark states on the coupling strengths, and a promising hierarchy between the quark family mixings shows up.
Category: High Energy Particle Physics

One Property of the Euler's Number e
Una Propiedad Del Numero e de Euler

Authors: Carlos Alejandro Chiappini
Comments: 3 Pages. carloschiappini@gmail.com

Does something special happen when the exponent of a power is the inverse of the base? The analysis of the case led, unexpectedly, to a property of e and a simple way to definethat number.

Sucede algo especial cuando el exponente de una potencia es la inversa de la base? Elanálisis del caso condujo, inesperadamente, a una propiedad de e y a una manera sencilla de definir ese núumero.
Category: General Mathematics

Trans-Planckian Censorship Conjecture: Factual in Multi-fold Universes as well as GR Universes

Authors: Stephane H. Maes
Comments: 14 Pages. All related details of the projects (and updates) can be found and followed at https://shmaesphysics.wordpress.com/shmaes-physics-site-navigation/.

In a multi-fold universe, gravity emerges from Entanglement through the multi-fold mechanisms. As a result, gravity-like effects appear in between entangled particles, whether they be real or virtual. Long range, massless gravity results from entanglement of massless virtual particles. Entanglement of massive virtual particles leads to massive gravity contributions at very smalls scales. Multi-folds mechanisms also result into a spacetime that is discrete, with a random walk fractal structure and non-commutative geometry that is Lorentz invariant and where spacetime nodes and particles can be modeled with microscopic black holes. All these recover General Relativity (GR) at large scales, and semi-classical models remain valid till smaller scales than usually expected. Gravity can therefore be added to the Standard Model resulting into what we define as SMG. This can contribute to resolving several open issues with the Standard Model without New Physics other than gravity, i.e. no new particles or forces. These considerations hint at an even stronger relationship between gravity and the Standard Model. Multi-folds can be encountered in GR at Plank scales, in spacetime quantization starting from the Hilbert Einstein action, and in the equivalence principle of suitable quantum reference frames in relational quantum physics. Conversely, GR and Quantum physics, including path integrals, the Born rule, and wave functions, can be recovered through different paths from multi-fold spacetime reconstruction and the W-type multi-fold hypothesis. In a multi-fold universe, GR and Quantum Physics are not incompatible, they are just different facets of multi-fold mechanisms, something that neither theory can well model.This paper discusses the implications of the multi-fold spacetime reconstruction, or its encounter in GR, in terms of the Trans-Planckian Censorship Conjecture. We provide a microscopic explanation to the conjecture that becomes factual in a multi-fold universe and relate it to the issues of inflation, black hole physics and Planck scale Physics. The results extend to any universe described by GR, and probably to any universe with minimum length. In fact we see acceptance of TCC as another way to deduce that spacetime must be discrete or with minimum length.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

A Corpuscular Space-Time to Explain Gravitation

Authors: Yvan-Claude Raverdy
Comments: 8 Pages.

We want to show here that it is possible to conceive a theory of gravitation, built with very simple physical notions derived from the most classical mechanics . This is achieved by making the assomption that physical space is a granular fluid medium constitutied by "corpuscles" with infinitesimal energy and dimension and endowed with quantified cooperative properties . We will show that such a point of view can explain the principles on which Relativity is based and recover all its results . It also allow us to understand a quantum character for Newton strenght and shed some light on these mysterious "black objects" .
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Revealing the Quantum Origin of Gravity

Authors: Michael A. Ivanov
Comments: 5 Pages. Poster contribution to the workshop Witnessing Quantum Aspects of Gravity in a Lab, São Paulo, Brazil, September 23 — 27, 2024.

Some additional features of the low-energy quantum gravity model are described: the presence of anomalous deceleration, the many-valued nature of the luminosity distance, another possibledistance dependence of the redshift and damping of radio waves, and the prohibition on the existence of black holes.
Category: Quantum Gravity and String Theory

Mass Based on its Spatiotemporal Curvature

Authors: Ivo Draschkow
Comments: 2 Pages.

Any coherent mass formation, regardless of its density, is subject to a relativistic curvature, which, as proven here, accounts for a certain proportion of the Schwarzschild radius. General Relativity reveals a minimum state of this proportion for quantum-sized structures and thereby unveils a fundamental spectrum.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Remarks on a Formula of ji-Cai Liu

Authors: Edgar Valdebenito
Comments: 3 Pages.

Via symbolic summation method, we establish many series for pi^2 .
Category: Number Theory

The Collatz Conjecture Interpreted with Graph Theory and the Properties of the Digital Root of Numbers: an Analytical Approach.

Authors: Miguel Cerdá Bennassar
Comments: 6 Pages.

In this paper I present a study of the Collatz problem and its conjecture using graph theory and the properties of the digital root of natural numbers.
Category: Number Theory

Polinomial Natural Solution of the Pythagorean Equation
Solución Natural Polinómica de la Ecuación Pitagórica

Authors: Carlos Alejandro Chiappini
Comments: 5 Pages. carloschiappini@gmail.com

While unsuccessfully playing with the last Fermat's theorem I noticed that this way of playing, applied to the Pythagorean equation a²+b²=c², leads to a polynomial general natural solution. The game combines arithmetic, common sense and logic. It is a bit like teaching and learning mathematical and geometric subjects with the help of colorful manipulatives, as is done at the most elementary levels of teaching. The only thing different in the adult experience is operating with mentally conceived objects. The way of operating with them does not change.

Mientras jugaba sin éxito con el UTF noté que esa manera de jugar, aplicada a la ecuación pitagórica a²+b²=c² , conduce a una solución natural general polinómica. El juego combina aritmética, sentido común y lógica. Se parece un poco a enseñar y aprender asuntos matemáticos y geométricos con ayuda de objetos manipulables coloridos, como se hace en los niveles más elementales de la enseñanza. Lo único distinto en la experiencia adulta es operar con objetos concebidos mentalmente. La manera de operar con ellos no cambia.
Category: General Mathematics

On the Fluid Properties of Space

Authors: Jue Zhang
Comments: 21 Pages. In Chinese (Corrections made by viXra Admin)

The theory of this paper regards the universe as a whole space fluid. Based on three basic assumptions, the essence of quantum effects is explained with classical physics ideas. Use the ideal distribution coarse-grained method to connect the macro and micro, calculate the "particle trajectory", and give the principle of the chaotic system. Analyze the relationship between space and time and matter. Explain gravity with the water bottle experiment. Explain the physical meaning of the Schrödinger equation. Explain why light refracts. Explain the nature of electromagnetism and the physical meaning of Maxwell's equations, and give the principle of superconductivity.
Category: Classical Physics

Photon Violation Spectroscopy

Authors: Eric Stanley Reiter
Comments: 30 Pages. This is an edit of US patent application US-20050139776 A1.

The method uses spontaneously emitted gamma-rays from a radioisotope source, typically cadmium-109 at 88 keV or cobalt-57 at 122 keV. Detectors employed are typically NaI(Tl) or HPGe. After a two-part gamma-ray split, detection pulses are windowed for the characteristic pulse amplitude and measured in coincidence. By using high resolution detectors and gamma-ray frequencies whereby the detector has a high photoelectric effect efficiency, coincidence rates are found to substantially exceed the chance rate, in defiance of quantum mechanics. This unquantum effect implies that photons are an illusion, and is explained by an extension of the long abandoned loading theory of Planck. In scattering gamma-rays in beam-split geometry, changes in response to magnetic fields, temperature, and crystal orientation become tools to measure properties of atomic bonds in the beam-splitter material. With detectors in tandem geometry where the first detector is both scatterer and absorber, tests reveal properties consistent with a classical gamma-ray model. The unquantum effect has also shown sensitivity to the crystalline state of the source material. Conventional gamma-ray spectroscopy shows no substantial response to these applied variables.
Category: Quantum Physics

Entropy Denial How Small Are Quantum Objects

Authors: Harry French
Comments: 6 Pages.

This paper makes three points: Entropy is real. Entropy is a good measure of how small quantum objects are. Entropy increase and the Born rule happen together.Entropy was shown to be real before atoms were shown to be real. Yet many people persist in believing that entropy is an illusion. One reason is: in classical mechanics, entropy must be an illusion. Boltzmann showed how to create and measure the illusion of entropy. Poincare and others showed that it was an illusion.In quantum mechanics entropy can be real. The quantum representation of an object is a probability distribution over wavefunctions (a density matrix NOT A WAVEFUNCTION). There is no reason that the probabilities are any less real than other reality.Entropy is a dimension in which a quantum object must be small. Only objects with zero entropy have a wavefunction. Another way to ask how small are quantum objects? is how small must objects be to exhibit amplitude interference? For interference ((Signal + Noise) / Signal) is exponential in entropy, measured in natural units. Thus the natural unit of entropy provides a scale of how small quantum objects are.Introducing the "Entropy Is Real" (EIR) interpretation of quantum mechanics. Whenever entropy can increase, the probability (or rate) that a given path is taken to increase entropy is given by the appropriate Born Rule (not time reversible). Only with the residual probability, the density matrix propagates by the appropriate time reversible (Hamiltonian) (Unitary) operator.It is time to retire the idea that entropy is an illusion.Yet many people persist in believing that entropy is an illusion.
Category: Quantum Physics

Minkowski Space-Time and Galilean Space-Time

Authors: Fang Zhou
Comments: 55 Pages. (Note by viXra Admin: Naming an equation after the author's name is not acceptable scholarly practice)

The logic for Space-Time and Space-time Transformation is as follows: Minkowski Space-Time( Min.ST ) —"Set of Identical Transformation"— is contained by Galilean Space-Time( Gal.ST ) which is "Set of Galilean-[] Transformation", contained by the "Universe Space-Time". Identical Transformation is ‘Null’ Transformation，which is the only Space-time Transformation defined in Min.ST by reason that the Min.ST is a "One-observer’s World", whereas the Gal.ST is a "Multi-observer’s World", in which the math-physical formulae of Special Theory of Relativity(STR) and General Theory of Relativity(GTR)，deduced in Min.ST, should be tested and verified, and thereby correctly physically interpreted. Lorentz Transformation, defined in Min.ST, is actually Identical Transformation which is just only available for fibre-glass light propagation. Galilean-[] Transformation, defined in Gal.ST, is suitable for all-around light propagation with Doppler’s Effect.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

A Simple Fully Conformal Solution of Einstein's Gravitational Equations and the Agreement of Its Implications with Astrophysical Data

Authors: Richard Dvorsky
Comments: 13 Pages.

Another cosmological redshift mechanism could exist in general relativity, as is differences in the global metric field gμν between the radiation source in the past, and the observer in the present, known as gravitational redshift in massive stars. In this paper, we present a fully conformal global metric model with time scaling that would lead to the above alternative interpretation of the cosmological redshift. It is based on a relatively simple global solution of Einstein's gravitational equations without the cosmological term, and the analysis also shows other interesting astrophysical implications. The model naturally solves the problem of critical density and spatial flatness, as well as the problem of cosmological redshift in the spectra of distant astrophysical sources, and the problem of Olbers' and Seeliger's paradox. At the same time, it replaces the strict causal horizon principle with a much softer formulation-the region of the practically observable universe. Confrontation with astrophysical data provides interesting agreement with the spatial distribution of astrophysical radiation sources such as γ-ray bursts and quasars. However, probably the most important consequence is the new, generalized formulation of Hubble's law z(r) = (exp(Hr/c)-1), which shows good agreement R 2 ≈ 0.9824 with experimental data even for very distant sources. The paper also physically justifies in principle the modification of Newton's law of gravity for infinite space proposed by Seeliger. The modifying exponential term exp(-Hr/c) is uniquely quantified by the Hubble parameter and the speed of light.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Michelson-Morley Experiment Why!

Authors: Quang Nguyen Van
Comments: 3 Pages.

Michelson - Morley experiment is the Most famous "failed" experiment. Why the experimental results is negative?
Category: Mathematical Physics

The Mass of the Observable Universe on the Basis of its Age in Black-Hole Cosmology

Authors: Richard Michael Blaber
Comments: 12 Pages. Creative Commons License, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

On the assumption of black-hole cosmology, it is straightforward to calculate the mass of the observable Universe on the basis of its age. It will be shown here that this calculation is in agreement with one based on a relationship between fundamental physical constants, providing strong support for black-hole cosmology.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Gravity Model With Neutrino-like Particles

Authors: Yu E. Zevatskiy
Comments: 3 Pages.

The dynamics of a two-body system in an isotropic radiation medium is considered. Newton's gravitational equations were obtained under the condition that the radiation carriers are neutrino-like particles. The existence of a common particle in the mechanisms of gravitational and weak interactions is proposed.
Category: Astrophysics

Infinity and Infinite Induction

Authors: Jincheng Zhang
Comments: 15 Pages.

What is infinity? What principles should be adhered to when researching infinity? For a predicate on a natural number system, is it true that finite holds, and infinite holds? This paper reexamines the nature of infinity and proposes two opposite infinite axioms (δ+1=δ or δ+1≠δ). Based on these two infinite axioms, the "infinite induction" of the identity formula is proved; it is found that the infinite axioms in the ZF system do not satisfy the equality axiom, and there are many contradictions in the reasoning of the Cantor ordinal number. The ordinal theory of set theory ZF system is not strict. It is hoped that the mathematics community will pay attention to these questions and give a convincing answer.
Category: Set Theory and Logic

One Procedure for Determining the Astronomical Azimuth of a Direction

Authors: Abdelmajid Ben Hadj Salem
Comments: 7 Pages. In French

This note, written after my participation in 1982 in the astronomical campaign for observations of 8 Laplace points, presents the procedure for determining the astronomical azimuth of a direction by observing the pole star, notingthe time of its observation, i.e. the so-called time method.
Category: Geophysics

The Reason of Hydrogen Atom Producing Ionization Energy

Authors: Huang Shan
Comments: 1 Page.

Why does hydrogen atom produce ionization energy? Here we can find an answer that looks very simple or very pleasing.
Category: Classical Physics

Particles Of Space-Time a Brief 'Experimental' Approach

Authors: Carlton Frederick, Nicholas Taylor
Comments: 9 Pages.

Some theoretical physics models take space-time to be discontinuous. We concur. Further, we suggest that all of space-time consists of real, charged, Planck-scale, particles that move in an imaginary manifold under the influence of a force acting between those particles. We propose such a force, an amalgam of the strong and electro-weak forces. In addition, the gravitational force and the force between charged particles is included. We then drop a large number of the particles into the manifold and observe their motions. The motions can be observed in 3D on a dedicated URL. This lets us explore various quantum mechanical phenomena.
Category: Quantum Physics

The Mysterious Links of 137 to the Fine Structure Constant, Electron's Coulomb to Gravitational Force Ratio, and Mass of Elementary Particles

Authors: Jau Tang, Brian E. Tang
Comments: 11 Pages.

In this work, we unfold the mysteries surrounding the fine structure constant and explain the physical origin of the fine structure constant as a result of gauge invariance, Einstein’s mass-energy relation, and spacetime quantization. We obtain an estimate of an electron’s radius R_e=1.40934×10^(-15) m, and also link the magic 137 beyond electromagnetism, to electrons’ Coulomb-gravitational force ratio F_Cu2044F_G =3×(137π)^16, and the mass ratios of an electron to other particles such as a proton, Higgs boson, W/Z bosons, and quarks. With the proposed quantized spacetime, singularity divergence, and vacuum catastrophe problems in continuum quantum field theory can be avoided.
Category: Quantum Physics

Einstein's Teleportation of Masses on the Labdesk

Authors: Wolfgang Sturm
Comments: 3 Pages. Diagram corrected

"If the theory agrees with the facts, radiation transfers inertial masses between emitting and absorbing bodies." (Einstein 1905). It works!
Category: Classical Physics

Have we Misinterpreted Special Relativity?

Authors: John Malcolm Newell
Comments: 2 Pages.

Einstein's 1905 formulation of special relativity may in actuality describe a complex relationship between the proper time of the observer and the proper time of an object with relative velocity. If y = (1 - x^2)^0.5 is a complex number even when x < 1 does it not follow that t' = t (1 - v^2 / c^2)^0.5 is a relationship between t' and t the nature of which requires us, in the name of diligence, to examine the possibility that no energy is contained by quanta during their transmission because the proper time interval for a quanta, between its emission and its absorption, may be zero.
Category: Relativity and Cosmology

Practical Free-Space Quantum Key Distribution System for Metropolitan Links

Authors: Jose Manuel Bustarviejo Casado, Verónica Fernández Mármol, Pablo Arteaga-Díaz
Comments: 73 Pages.

This master thesis is related to the error processing stage of a practical quantum communication system.The system allows secure communications between two parties, (Alice and Bob). Initially, Alice has a string of bits that wants to send to Bob in a safe way. In order to do this, Alice encrypts the string of bits using photons that are polarized through applying horizontal, vertical, diagonal left and diagonal right bases. When all photons have been polarized, Alice sends them through a quantum channel to Bob. Once Bob receives them, he applies the same type of bases that Alice uses to encrypt for decrypting but in a random manner. They then compare the bases they used through a public, but authenticated channel, and keep only those in which both use the same bases for encryption and decryption. This string of bits, known as the sifted key, can still contain errors (bits that are different for Alice and Bob) which are produced by the noise of the channel or because Bob has applied a wrong basis in one or more photons. To resolve this, Alice and Bob use a reconciliation protocol which allows to fix the errors of the sifted key that Bob has. In this reconciliation protocol, Bob divides his key in blocks. For each block, Bob calculates the parity and asks Alice for the parity of the corresponding block in Alice's key. When Bob receives Alice’s parity, he compares it with his parity for the current block. If the parties are not equal, there is an error in the current block. In this case, Bob will look for the error in the block and fix it.However, there can be an eavesdropper (Eve) in the communications who can try to steal information. In this case, during quantum communications, Eve can intercept the photons that Alice has sent to Bob and can do the following:1. Decrypt the key that Alice has sent to Bob using the same bases that Alice. Eve has ¼ of probability of success and ¾ probability of failing. If Eve chooses this option, she will modify the state of each photon.2. Save the photons state without measuring anything and waiting to finish the photon transmissions.(Truncated by viXra Admin)
Category: Data Structures and Algorithms